When a nation is in war, there are many things at stake. One is obviously the integrity of the state and its ability to do its job. Secondly, in order to preserve the safety in the nation, the government chooses to sacrifice the rights of the people in order to protect the state at any and all costs. The most interesting thing about the United States is that in all of our significant crises, whether it range from WW1 to 9/11, the government has always cracked down upon the rights of the citizens because it is crucial to keep a certain mentality or energy surrounding the nation's policy.
During WW1, the world was in its first war with itself. The United States, a nation considered to be one of relatively no censorship of press. In the first amendment, it states "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press." When the United States was formed, the founding fathers did not want to crack down upon their press likes the British did to them during the 1760s-1770s. The founding fathers believed that a free press was instrumental in protecting the citizens' right to opinion and share ideas.
Passed in June of 1917, the Espionage Act allowed the postal service to ban the distribution of letters and newspapers that spoke out against the war drafts. Later in 1918, Congress passed perhaps the worse of the two bills, which declared saying and spreading "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the United States and its government was a federal offense. The US government cracked down upon the citizens who were attempting to speak out severely against the US government, and thus significantly crushing the liberties of Americans.
In every single situation when the United States has been at war of any kind, the Supreme Court has always favored in supporting the security of the nation rather than the liberties of its citizens. This is primarily because the government has to ensure security and protection from any external threats during times of war. For example, the Patriot Act, which was passed a mere 45 days after 9/11 called for stronger surveillance access by the federal government. This meant that the government had access to monitor phone calls, watch your internet search history, and bank records. This is all compiled in what are called NSLs, or National Security Letters. These are letters are issued by FBI officers and grant them access to all this information without a judge's warrant. This was designed to help increase the awareness of possible terror threats, even though it ultimately interfered with the privacy of thousands of people. Of the 192,499 NSLs issued between 2003-2006, ONE led to a terror-based conviction.
The United States as a democracy has to do one job as a government: secure property. This is the objective of the state. When a government is in times of war, all other priorities go out the window to secure the state's property. Because of this, the restrictions of Americans' rights, as supported numerous times by the Supreme Court, are encouraged in order to keep the nation from surviving any significant threats. Now, whether those threats are actually significant is up for interpretation, but the government tries to do whatever they can in order to keep the state in control.
Source:
http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtid=2&psid=3479
https://www.aclu.org/issues/national-security/privacy-and-surveillance/surveillance-under-patriot-act
Tuesday, October 31, 2017
Sunday, October 29, 2017
America's Relationship With The Press
In a time where every other article seems to be "fake news", it's hard to imagine that the press has ever been anything other than useless. However, the history of the press is deeply intertwined with American history and has played an important role in many developments that have affects that we still feel today.
The concept of the free press was first established back in 1735, when the publisher of the New York Weekly Journal, Peter Zenger, was arrested for the content of his newspaper that was deemed as libel about the British government. He won the court case, as it was voted that even if a statement was negative, it did not count as libel if it was true.
During the 1800s, the press grew to new heights as more and more people began to consume content of more opinionated news. The papers' ability to reach out to the everyday person allowed the industry to grow and eventually become a mass medium. This was soon impacted by the civil war, in which advances such as photography added a new dimension to the ability of newspapers to inform the people. Furthermore, with the telegraph at hand, news was able to be delivered in a timely manner so that newspapers were printing the most recent news. While the telegraphs were unreliable, their flaws were why the first reporters wrote with an inverted pyramid in which the most important information was at the beginning. This is also why even today, reporters do so in their writing, a trend that has passed through the centuries.
The importance of the news did not die down, and during the Gilded age, publishers such as William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer gave rise to yellow journalism as named after "The Yellow Kid", a comic published by Pulitzer. In this type of journalism, it was common to sensationalize and exaggerate the news so that more people would read it. This yellow journalism is often credited as a factor for the start of the Spanish American war, as yellow journalism played about the animosity between the two nations as well as the explosion of the Maine in Cuba. While journalism was used to twist the facts, a different side of the news began to appear. Named "muckrakers" by President Theodore Roosevelt, the newspaper began to bring legitimate issues to light. Writers such as Ida Tarbell and Lincoln Steffens were able to take down corrupt systems such as the trust system and boss systems within the economy and political sphere. In doing so, they showed how the press was to be used as a means of showing the people the truth as well as ensure justice.
This was not only isolated to the Gilded Age as modern examples can still be seen. One of the best examples is the Watergate Scandal, in which two reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, were able to uncover the truth about corruption in the White House.
Despite all of this, the news is quickly losing credibility, and it leaves many to wonder how it is that journalism has strayed so far from the original goal of informing the people and making the world a better place.
Source : https://www.thoughtco.com/here-is-a-brief-history-of-print-journalism-in-america-2073730
The concept of the free press was first established back in 1735, when the publisher of the New York Weekly Journal, Peter Zenger, was arrested for the content of his newspaper that was deemed as libel about the British government. He won the court case, as it was voted that even if a statement was negative, it did not count as libel if it was true.
During the 1800s, the press grew to new heights as more and more people began to consume content of more opinionated news. The papers' ability to reach out to the everyday person allowed the industry to grow and eventually become a mass medium. This was soon impacted by the civil war, in which advances such as photography added a new dimension to the ability of newspapers to inform the people. Furthermore, with the telegraph at hand, news was able to be delivered in a timely manner so that newspapers were printing the most recent news. While the telegraphs were unreliable, their flaws were why the first reporters wrote with an inverted pyramid in which the most important information was at the beginning. This is also why even today, reporters do so in their writing, a trend that has passed through the centuries.
The importance of the news did not die down, and during the Gilded age, publishers such as William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer gave rise to yellow journalism as named after "The Yellow Kid", a comic published by Pulitzer. In this type of journalism, it was common to sensationalize and exaggerate the news so that more people would read it. This yellow journalism is often credited as a factor for the start of the Spanish American war, as yellow journalism played about the animosity between the two nations as well as the explosion of the Maine in Cuba. While journalism was used to twist the facts, a different side of the news began to appear. Named "muckrakers" by President Theodore Roosevelt, the newspaper began to bring legitimate issues to light. Writers such as Ida Tarbell and Lincoln Steffens were able to take down corrupt systems such as the trust system and boss systems within the economy and political sphere. In doing so, they showed how the press was to be used as a means of showing the people the truth as well as ensure justice.
This was not only isolated to the Gilded Age as modern examples can still be seen. One of the best examples is the Watergate Scandal, in which two reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, were able to uncover the truth about corruption in the White House.
Despite all of this, the news is quickly losing credibility, and it leaves many to wonder how it is that journalism has strayed so far from the original goal of informing the people and making the world a better place.
Source : https://www.thoughtco.com/here-is-a-brief-history-of-print-journalism-in-america-2073730
Wilson's Fourteen Points
Stemming from a speech delivered on January 8, 1918, Wilson’s fourteen points set the outline for the American response to WW1. The Fourteen Points, which can be found here, attempted for “peace without victory”, making sure that there was no clear victor in the war, hopefully preventing future conflict. He outlined guidelines for international conduct, rules for self-determination, and finally a general association of nations to resolve disputes and promote collective security.
The first 5 points outlined the rules for international conduct, ranging from freedom of the seas and trade, to the restriction of armed forces. The next 8 points called for territorial adjustments within Europe, including colonial lands and territory gained in the war. The 14th, and last point called for, “A general association of nations … affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike,” which eventually resulted in the creation of the League of Nations.
While these points were seen as the basis for the American treatment of the peace, the reality was far from the ideal outcome. After hearing of his points, Germany agreed to negotiate with Wilson, giving him great power over the other European nations, but at The Paris Peace Conference, Wilson found it hard to stick to his ideals. Receiving pressure from David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, and Georges Clemenceau of France, Wilson was forced to change his position into a very anti-German treaty. One of the biggest difference from Wilson’s points and the Treaty of Versailles came in the form of the War Guilt Clause, which assigned the blame for the war entirely on the shoulders of the Germans, causing Wilson’s hope of “peace without victory” out the window. German was forced to pay 269 billion marks as reparation for the war, an amount impossible for them to pay, even disregarding their failing industries due to war damage.
While the ideas in Wilson’s fourteen points may have secured peace in an ideal setting, the outcome of the Paris Peace Conference caused many Germans to be angered over its disparities from Wilson’s initial speech. In the end, tensions over the treaty eventually would lead to the start of the World's next war, WW2.
“Porto Rico”: The Story of Puerto Rico’s Forced American Assimilation
You may have seen some political cartoons where the US territory we all know as Puerto Rico was referred to as “Porto Rico” and wondered why. Well, despite how random it may seem, there is a distinct reason why it was called this for 34 years of American history.
The United States first came into major contact with Puerto Rico after the conclusion of the Spanish American war. As part of the mission of imperialism, Americans arrived on the island in 1898 in hopes of “educating” and “bringing up” the Puerto Ricans, who were considered more wild and unkempt than the “civilized” Americans. As a first step, the Americans wanted to make a demonstration that Puerto Rico was no longer a territory of Spain; it now belonged to the US. In a dispute that involved both the media and public opinion, the country argued about whether to allow the island to keep its name, or change it to something more suitable to the United States. In the end, President McKinley decided that “Porto Rico” was the better name for the island, and the country officially anglicized the island’s name. Gone was Puerto Rico’s history of Spanish influence and culture as “The Rich Port”; it would now be called “Porto Rico”.
Along with the change of name, missionaries, business leaders, and others travelled to the island, trying to absorb the Puerto Ricans into American life and culture and adapt them to “the ways of the WASP”. From 1900-1910, the US passed laws allowing it to supervise the “Porto Rican” affairs and economy, causing the “Porto Ricans” to send ambassadors in 1915 requesting an increase in their autonomy, which was denied.
Throughout all this time, the “Porto Ricans” were still considered less civilized than the Americans, and with each restriction and controlling jurisdiction that the US passed, the US felt they were doing more to help improve the lives of the “Porto Ricans” and assimilate them to American culture.
Eventually, 34 years after the occupation of Puerto Rico, due to the high amounts of requests from Puerto Ricans over the years, the US passed a clause in Title 48 deeming that from May 17, 1932 onwards, the name of the island would be "Puerto Rico" again, giving the Puerto Ricans back a little bit of their cultural freedom.
Medicine in the First World War
In the fifty years since the end of the Civil War the field of medicine had seen very few advancements, however, during the First World War medicine took a giant leap forward. Numerous advancements led to the increased survival rates of the war from the Civil War. These advancements include things such as better transportation, improved methods of disinfection, advanced detection systems, and the introduction of new surgical methods.
Prior to and at the beginning of the First World War, amputation was the primary method for solving medical problems. As a result, countless unnecessary amputations of soldiers' limbs occurred. Thankfully, in the war the system of ambulances that became established helped to significantly decrease this number. The ambulances allowed for soldiers to be taken from the battlefield and to nearby hospitals with enough time for the doctors to disinfect the wound and repair it without having to amputate. Before the ambulances, transporting patients to the hospital was a long task that often would do more harm than good, and thanks to the increased amount of attention that medical units got during the First World War they had enough resources and ambulances in order to provide the necessary care to the injured soldiers. Not only were these medical units more prevalent in the fields, but they were strategically placed on the battlefront in order to ensure the survival of more soldiers. In fact, in 1917 when the United States entered the war there was no established medical unit, so to have such incredible medical care for the time by the end of the war shows how fast medicine advanced during this period. An example of how technological improvements allowed for more survivors can be found in the use of the X-ray machine. Beginning in France during the war, mobile X-ray units were developed which allowed doctors to detect bullets and shrapnel in wounds. This method of detection allowed for these foreign objects to be more efficiently removed, thereby decreasing the invasiveness of surgeries and allowing more soldiers to live.
In addition to the presence of medicine in war having been greatly increased, the methods of treating injuries also significantly improved. One improvement that allowed for a greater survival rate was the Carrel-Dakin Method. The Carrel-Dakin Method was a method of disinfection that not only stopped the spread of infection but was one of the factors that allowed doctors to branch out from amputation as the primary method of stopping infections. Doctors also began to increase their knowledge of diseases and how they spread, especially in the medical settings in which they worked. In order to prevent the spread of disease, which had been what actually killed a lot of people during the Civil War as opposed to their wounds, they began to increase the rate at which they administered vaccinations. Vaccinations are still used as a method of disease control today, demonstrating how effective they are in preventing both civilians and soldiers from falling ill. Also, the Thomas Splint increased the rate of survival for soldiers with broken femurs (thigh bones) to skyrocket from twenty percent to eighty percent. This simple splint allowed for a sixty percent increase in survivors, not only creating a more positive view of the field doctors but creating a whole new job within the medical professionals, bonesetters. In terms of surgery during the First World War, there were multiple advancements that made it more effective. The most significant of these advancements was the introduction of a new method of general anesthesia. Nitrous Oxide-Oxygen mixture was introduced as one of the first general anesthetics that put the patient to sleep without putting them into shock, allowing for surgeries to be performed with less pain for the patient. Finally, the First World War sparked an evolution in facial reconstructive surgery. For soldiers having been marred by the battlefield, they could now elect to have surgeries performed to decrease the physical and emotional effects of these wounds. This allowed these soldiers to function more normally, if their wounds hindered normal facial function, or to feel better about themselves simply because they looked better. The First World War was a time of major STEM advancement, especially in the field of medicine, introducing methods and concepts still utilized today.
Sources
https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/02/world-war-i-medicine/517656/
http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-28678392
https://www.ncpedia.org/wwi-medicine-battlefield
Prior to and at the beginning of the First World War, amputation was the primary method for solving medical problems. As a result, countless unnecessary amputations of soldiers' limbs occurred. Thankfully, in the war the system of ambulances that became established helped to significantly decrease this number. The ambulances allowed for soldiers to be taken from the battlefield and to nearby hospitals with enough time for the doctors to disinfect the wound and repair it without having to amputate. Before the ambulances, transporting patients to the hospital was a long task that often would do more harm than good, and thanks to the increased amount of attention that medical units got during the First World War they had enough resources and ambulances in order to provide the necessary care to the injured soldiers. Not only were these medical units more prevalent in the fields, but they were strategically placed on the battlefront in order to ensure the survival of more soldiers. In fact, in 1917 when the United States entered the war there was no established medical unit, so to have such incredible medical care for the time by the end of the war shows how fast medicine advanced during this period. An example of how technological improvements allowed for more survivors can be found in the use of the X-ray machine. Beginning in France during the war, mobile X-ray units were developed which allowed doctors to detect bullets and shrapnel in wounds. This method of detection allowed for these foreign objects to be more efficiently removed, thereby decreasing the invasiveness of surgeries and allowing more soldiers to live.
In addition to the presence of medicine in war having been greatly increased, the methods of treating injuries also significantly improved. One improvement that allowed for a greater survival rate was the Carrel-Dakin Method. The Carrel-Dakin Method was a method of disinfection that not only stopped the spread of infection but was one of the factors that allowed doctors to branch out from amputation as the primary method of stopping infections. Doctors also began to increase their knowledge of diseases and how they spread, especially in the medical settings in which they worked. In order to prevent the spread of disease, which had been what actually killed a lot of people during the Civil War as opposed to their wounds, they began to increase the rate at which they administered vaccinations. Vaccinations are still used as a method of disease control today, demonstrating how effective they are in preventing both civilians and soldiers from falling ill. Also, the Thomas Splint increased the rate of survival for soldiers with broken femurs (thigh bones) to skyrocket from twenty percent to eighty percent. This simple splint allowed for a sixty percent increase in survivors, not only creating a more positive view of the field doctors but creating a whole new job within the medical professionals, bonesetters. In terms of surgery during the First World War, there were multiple advancements that made it more effective. The most significant of these advancements was the introduction of a new method of general anesthesia. Nitrous Oxide-Oxygen mixture was introduced as one of the first general anesthetics that put the patient to sleep without putting them into shock, allowing for surgeries to be performed with less pain for the patient. Finally, the First World War sparked an evolution in facial reconstructive surgery. For soldiers having been marred by the battlefield, they could now elect to have surgeries performed to decrease the physical and emotional effects of these wounds. This allowed these soldiers to function more normally, if their wounds hindered normal facial function, or to feel better about themselves simply because they looked better. The First World War was a time of major STEM advancement, especially in the field of medicine, introducing methods and concepts still utilized today.
Sources
https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/02/world-war-i-medicine/517656/
http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-28678392
https://www.ncpedia.org/wwi-medicine-battlefield
Edith Wilson: The Secret President
Edith Bolling Galt Wilson, President Wilson’s second wife, is considered by some as the first woman to run the government after she essentially controlled the executive branch for the last two years of her husband’s second term. After President Wilson suffered a paralyzing stroke in 1919, Edith Wilson pre-screened all matters of state and actively hid the state of her husband’s health from the public.
At the time, the 25th Amendment, which provided a much more specific means of transfer of power in the case of a president’s death or disability, had not yet been ratified. The only legislation regarding transfer of presidential power in the case of a president’s illness was Clause 6 of Section 1 of Article II of the Constitution, which stated that the vice president would assume office if the president died, resigned, or was unable to serve. President Wilson was not dead and would not resign, and Mrs. Wilson and his physician (Dr. Grayson) never signed resolutions deeming him unable to serve. Without the signed resolutions, Vice President Thomas Marshall refused to assume the presidency. For the remainder of her life, Edith Wilson stuck by the story that President Wilson served all of his duties throughout his term. She wrote in her memoir that she was nothing more than a “steward” during this period, but historians have revealed that her role was much more than that of a steward--she was the first de-facto woman president.
As de-facto president, Edith Wilson acted as the sole conduit between the President and his cabinet; she determined which matters were important and required her husband’s attention. As she was unable to broker a compromise on the WWI resolution, Wilson’s hopes of getting the Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and join the League of Nations were dashed.
Through running a disinformation campaign and misleading Congress about President Wilson’s condition, First Lady Edith Wilson headed the executive branch for the last two years of her husband’s term and left a controversial legacy as the “first woman to run the government.”
Some questions for reflection: how do you think Edith Wilson’s de-facto tenure affected the public’s image of women, their characters, and their abilities to take on leadership positions? Do you think this would happen again if a modern-day president became incapacitated?
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/woodrow-wilson-stroke
https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/first-ladies/edithwilson
http://www.history.com/topics/first-ladies/edith-wilson
http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=29
At the time, the 25th Amendment, which provided a much more specific means of transfer of power in the case of a president’s death or disability, had not yet been ratified. The only legislation regarding transfer of presidential power in the case of a president’s illness was Clause 6 of Section 1 of Article II of the Constitution, which stated that the vice president would assume office if the president died, resigned, or was unable to serve. President Wilson was not dead and would not resign, and Mrs. Wilson and his physician (Dr. Grayson) never signed resolutions deeming him unable to serve. Without the signed resolutions, Vice President Thomas Marshall refused to assume the presidency. For the remainder of her life, Edith Wilson stuck by the story that President Wilson served all of his duties throughout his term. She wrote in her memoir that she was nothing more than a “steward” during this period, but historians have revealed that her role was much more than that of a steward--she was the first de-facto woman president.
As de-facto president, Edith Wilson acted as the sole conduit between the President and his cabinet; she determined which matters were important and required her husband’s attention. As she was unable to broker a compromise on the WWI resolution, Wilson’s hopes of getting the Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and join the League of Nations were dashed.
Through running a disinformation campaign and misleading Congress about President Wilson’s condition, First Lady Edith Wilson headed the executive branch for the last two years of her husband’s term and left a controversial legacy as the “first woman to run the government.”
Some questions for reflection: how do you think Edith Wilson’s de-facto tenure affected the public’s image of women, their characters, and their abilities to take on leadership positions? Do you think this would happen again if a modern-day president became incapacitated?
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/woodrow-wilson-stroke
https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/first-ladies/edithwilson
http://www.history.com/topics/first-ladies/edith-wilson
http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=29
Vaudeville: The Changing of Theatre and American Society
During the early 20th century, vaudeville, a type of entertainment that consisted of a string of unrelated acts, was extremely prominent. With vaudeville appearing after the Civil War, vaudeville served as one of the many ways changes were brought to American society and morale. Because of this, vaudeville would become to be extremely influential on the future of the theatre business in general. In fact, it was vaudeville that truly made theatrical entertainment a bigger business in the first place. However, vaudeville only rose to prominence with the help of the Reconstruction Period and subsequent years after the Civil War. During this period, better communication and transportation systems were being created. Many businessmen used such improvements to their advantage to form networks of theatrical productions. After the Civil War also brought increased leisure time to many which would be soon filled with watching theatrical productions such as vaudeville ones. When watching a theatrical production before the Civil War, it was not uncommon to have audience members disrupting the show as well as attacking actors when they were onstage or backstage. Many businessmen with their newly formed theatrical networks, wished to change this so that all would appreciate and respect the theatre.
An example of a prominent businessman of this network is Benjamin Franklin Keith. Many find him to be the main man behind the rise of vaudeville in America. Keith partnered with the Bijou Theatre in Boston, Massachusetts and used this theatre to reconstruct the public eye's view on theatrical business. Keith was severely strict on what was allowed in the Bijou Theatre, and this included tangible items as well as the actors' and audience members' attitudes. Such examples of this included the banning of derogatory or sexual comments for the audience members as well as the prohibiting revealing costumes for the performers. Keith envisioned his theater to be a place of respect and cleanliness, for he believed if a theater prioritized such things a more enjoyable and successful performance would come as a result both for the performers and audience members. Keith believed it would also be successful because, with a more decent theater, it would appeal to a larger population. Specifically, Keith made efforts to ensure that women and children would be able to enjoy the performances. In fact, Keith regularly invited Sunday schools to rehearsals of certain acts to ensure that the act was decent to their standards. Because of Keith's efforts, such a kind of theater became praised and was soon expected of every professional theater.
Many young vaudeville performers would later rise to fame in their older years. One such performer would be Judy Garland, born Frances Gumm. Judy Garland is famously known for performing the onscreen roles of Esther Smith in Meet Me in St. Louis and Dorothy Gale in the The Wizard of Oz. Before her movie stardom, Garland performed in multiple vaudeville acts, beginning at only the age of two, alongside her two older sisters. The trio was known to be the "The Gumm Sisters" and their specialty was singing and dancing to current songs. This would be as opposed to other types of acts such as acrobatics, clowning, or even acts involving animals. Below are two recorded performances of Judy Garland's, or at the time, Frances Gumm's.
The Gumm Sisters: "The Land of Let's Pretend"
The Gumm Sisters: "That's the Good Old Sunny South"
Sources:
http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma02/easton/vaudeville/vaudevillemain.html
Tearing Down Wilson
It is no surprise that one of the most prestigious institutes of higher learning, Princeton University, has prestigious alumnus, one of the most prominent and most famous one being president Woodrow Wilson. What we often forget is that even in the White House, racism was extremely prevalent. Wilson himself was no exception.
In 2015, Princeton University's Black Justice League led protests across campus to tear down Woodrow Wilson's name in regards to his racist legacy. One of the most famous accounts that show Wilsons prejudice occurred in 1914 when William Monroe Trotter, the then leader of the African-American civil rights movement, was humiliated by the past president. During this time, Trotter was regarded as one of the most important and necessary leaders to African American rights and in 1914, he arranged a meeting with Wilson alongside a few of his supporters to discuss the segregation in the country. Trotter was a Harvard educated man who founded The Guardian, still one of the most notable newspapers today. What is interesting to look at is that Trotter was initially a firm supporter for Wilson during Wilson's Campaign despite Wilson never directly stating that he would support racial equality. Trotter was hopefully and thought that because Wilson insisted he was fighting for the working man, this would encompass African Americans as well. Unfortunately, Trotter learned that that was not the case. In 1913, Trotter, Trotter's wife Deenie and Ida B. Wells thoroughly discussed the Jim Crows to Wilson and left hopeful. While Wilson never promised anything, they believed that he understood the plight of the African Americans yet in the coming year, segregation only worsened. The event on November 12 was arranged and Trotter arrived at the Oval Office, prepared to discuss segregation with Wilson, confident that the president would understand. Wilson would not have it and quickly stated that he saw "segregation as a benefit to blacks", one of the most disheartening quotes that Wilson spoke being "My question would be this: If you think that you gentlemen, as an organization, and all other Negro citizens of this Country, that you are being humiliated, you will believe it. If you take it as a humiliation, which it is not intended as, sow the seeds of that impression all over the country, why the consequences will be very serious." Wilson continued to say to Trotter "You have spoiled the whole cause for which you came".Wilson then promptly "kicked" Trotter and his supporters out. This only fueled Trotter's desire to fight back against the president who refused to listen.
After that incident, the respect that the black community had and Trotter once held for Wilson was lost and they continued to fight for the cause. This angered Wilson and the two consistently battled it out. At the end, Wilson admitted that he should have controlled his temper but the damage was forever done.
Wilson's name is prominently displayed across Princeton's campus, there is a mural of him in the dining hall and his name in the School of Public and International Affairs. Those in the Black Justice League argued that "Princeton continues to demonstrate its seemingly intractable investment in white supremacy and its vestiges." After a series of long debates, Princeton agreed this year to remove the mural of Wilson that celebrated his accomplishments. The fight is not over however, colleges across the nation are calling for the removal of people such as Alexander Hamilton who owned slaves and other significant figures who supported racism. Ultimately, the legacy that many politicans leave behind is mixed with what is considered evil and good.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2016/04/27/princeton-to-remove-overly-celebratory-mural-of-woodrow-wilson/
http://www.newsweek.com/should-we-tear-down-statues-slave-owning-presidents-651738
https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/wilson-legacy-racism/417549/
http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/04/04/472985937/princeton-will-keep-woodrow-wilsons-name-on-school-buildings
https://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/nov/23/princeton-woodrow-wilson-racism-students-remove-name
In 2015, Princeton University's Black Justice League led protests across campus to tear down Woodrow Wilson's name in regards to his racist legacy. One of the most famous accounts that show Wilsons prejudice occurred in 1914 when William Monroe Trotter, the then leader of the African-American civil rights movement, was humiliated by the past president. During this time, Trotter was regarded as one of the most important and necessary leaders to African American rights and in 1914, he arranged a meeting with Wilson alongside a few of his supporters to discuss the segregation in the country. Trotter was a Harvard educated man who founded The Guardian, still one of the most notable newspapers today. What is interesting to look at is that Trotter was initially a firm supporter for Wilson during Wilson's Campaign despite Wilson never directly stating that he would support racial equality. Trotter was hopefully and thought that because Wilson insisted he was fighting for the working man, this would encompass African Americans as well. Unfortunately, Trotter learned that that was not the case. In 1913, Trotter, Trotter's wife Deenie and Ida B. Wells thoroughly discussed the Jim Crows to Wilson and left hopeful. While Wilson never promised anything, they believed that he understood the plight of the African Americans yet in the coming year, segregation only worsened. The event on November 12 was arranged and Trotter arrived at the Oval Office, prepared to discuss segregation with Wilson, confident that the president would understand. Wilson would not have it and quickly stated that he saw "segregation as a benefit to blacks", one of the most disheartening quotes that Wilson spoke being "My question would be this: If you think that you gentlemen, as an organization, and all other Negro citizens of this Country, that you are being humiliated, you will believe it. If you take it as a humiliation, which it is not intended as, sow the seeds of that impression all over the country, why the consequences will be very serious." Wilson continued to say to Trotter "You have spoiled the whole cause for which you came".Wilson then promptly "kicked" Trotter and his supporters out. This only fueled Trotter's desire to fight back against the president who refused to listen.
After that incident, the respect that the black community had and Trotter once held for Wilson was lost and they continued to fight for the cause. This angered Wilson and the two consistently battled it out. At the end, Wilson admitted that he should have controlled his temper but the damage was forever done.
Wilson's name is prominently displayed across Princeton's campus, there is a mural of him in the dining hall and his name in the School of Public and International Affairs. Those in the Black Justice League argued that "Princeton continues to demonstrate its seemingly intractable investment in white supremacy and its vestiges." After a series of long debates, Princeton agreed this year to remove the mural of Wilson that celebrated his accomplishments. The fight is not over however, colleges across the nation are calling for the removal of people such as Alexander Hamilton who owned slaves and other significant figures who supported racism. Ultimately, the legacy that many politicans leave behind is mixed with what is considered evil and good.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2016/04/27/princeton-to-remove-overly-celebratory-mural-of-woodrow-wilson/
http://www.newsweek.com/should-we-tear-down-statues-slave-owning-presidents-651738
https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/wilson-legacy-racism/417549/
http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/04/04/472985937/princeton-will-keep-woodrow-wilsons-name-on-school-buildings
https://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/nov/23/princeton-woodrow-wilson-racism-students-remove-name
Saturday, October 28, 2017
The Philippine-American War
The Philippine-American War
A Brief Summary of the War
After the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1899, ending the Spanish-American war, fighting broke out between the United States and the Philippines, a newly acquired US territory that attempted to gain autonomy. Emilio Aguinaldo, who led Philippine rebels, believed that the Philippines should become independent rather than be subjected to the rule of another colonial empire. The irony of the "Splendid Little War" is that the fighting that ensued between the US and the Philippines lasted three years, took over 4000 American lives, and more than 220,000 Filipino lives.
Though support for this war was far from unanimous, Americans both in and out of government had a variety of reasons to support the annexation of the Philippines. Perhaps most importantly, taking the Philippines would offer a variety of economic advantages to the United States. Having this Pacific island would be beneficial to establish trade routes and compete in Asian markets. Additionally, the popular idea of Social Darwinism led many to believe that the US had an ethical obligation to annex the Philippines. This backward thinking was based on the idea that other races were less evolved than Americans and were therefore incapable of governing themselves. The last major motivation for acquiring Filipino territory was to prevent other superpowers from acquiring it. Aguinaldo named the new Philippine Republic, but the US only ever referred to the conflict as an insurrection, to assume that the Philippines was a part of the United States.
Parallels Between the American Revolution and the Philippine-American War
Though the results differed, there were actually many similarities between the American and Philippine Revolutions. In both cases, the colony grew tired of being ruled by a faraway country and attempted to fight for autonomy. However, the differences go beyond this.
The advantages that the British had in the Revolutionary War were enjoyed by the Americans in the Philippine-American War. Americans were establishing a vast empire by the end of the Spanish American War. This gave the US access to materials and trading routes that would prove instrumental in combating the Philippine "insurrection". Much like the British, they had a superior navy, much larger numbers, and more ammunition. However, the Philippines did not enjoy as many of the same advantages as the United States did in the Revolutionary War, one key difference between these conflicts. Though the Philippines did know their geography better, like the American rebels, the Philippine archipelago is made up of thousands of islands, which helped the strong American navy more than the Philippines, despite their knowledge. Additionally, the Philippines was unable to attract the support of another superpower, unlike the Americans were. These key differences may have cost the Philippines their liberty.
Perhaps most uncanny is that both the American Revolution and Philippine-American war involved two different types of fighting: traditional warfare and guerrilla warfare. In both cases, the colony first attempted traditional warfare, despite having fewer troops and far inferior supplies. Both Washington and Aguinaldo soon realized that they could not win against these larger and better-supplied armies, and turned to guerrilla warfare, utilizing superior knowledge of geography. In both cases, guerrilla warfare turned out to be a much better strategy than traditional warfare. However, one main difference between Washington and Aguinaldo was when they made the switch from traditional to guerrilla warfare. Washington realized early that the traditional tactics that Congress supported would lead to quick defeat. Aguinaldo's inability to realize the need for guerrilla warfare is what possibly led to ultimate Filipino defeat. In the ten months of fighting before the switch to guerrilla warfare, the Filipino army suffered high casualties.
Ultimately, despite these similarities, these two conflicts had quite different results. The United States gained independence, while the Philippines did not gain their freedom until 1946. Through these similarities, we can see that history often does repeat itself.
"Battle of Manila Bay"
Sources:
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/war
http://www.historynet.com/george-washington-defeated-at-the-battle-of-long-island.htm
http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/philippine-independence-declared
Remember Fort Pillow!
As part of his raid into Union held West Tennessee and Kentucky, in an effort to gain recruits and supplies and interfere with General Sherman's preparations for his march on Atlanta. Confederate general, Nathan Bedford Forrest and some two thousand Confederate cavalrymen, surrounded Fort Pillow and the 500 Union troops garrisoned inside it on the morning of April 12, 1864.
Forrest's men kept up constant sharpshooter and artillery fire throughout the day. Even managing to kill the fort's commanding officer, Major Lionel Booth. By 3:30 PM, Forrest demanded for the fort to surrender. Major William Bradford, Booth's second in command, requested a one hour cease-fire to confer with his officers and plan for Union reinforcements. However, Forrest, having received news of Union boats approaching the fort and suspecting Bradford for using the cease-fire to fortify his defenses, he announced that his men would storm the fort in twenty minutes.
Easily making it over the parapets and ditches protecting the fort, Confederate troops swiftly defeated the poorly led and organized Union soldiers. The fighting lasting less than a half hour. While of little strategic significance, eyewitness accounts and the ensuing congressional investigation of the battle, determined that a massacre had occurred in which an unknown number of mostly African American troops were killed after having surrendered. It is unclear how many soldiers were killed during the fighting as opposed to afterwards, but it is known that only 20% of Black soldiers at the battle were captured compared to 60% of the White soldiers.
Similar to the Alamo during the Texas Revolution, the battle at Fort Pillow became of huge importance to Black soldiers, their battle cry being, "Remember Fort Pillow!" During the Battle of New Market Heights, Black regiments spearheaded the attack, having to cross over 800 yards of open field in order to reach the Confederate line. The Black troops were encouraged to shout these words as they charged, the whole time being mowed down by Confederate forces. In the end, the Black troops were unwavering and proved extremely brave, able to overrun the Confederate's position despite heavy losses. This battle showed the worthiness of Blacks to serve in the army and debunked the myth that Black men could not fight as well as their White counterparts.
Works Cited:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Fort-Pillow-Massacre
https://www.civilwar.org/learn/articles/battle-new-market-heights-usct-soldiers-proved-their-heroism
Forrest's men kept up constant sharpshooter and artillery fire throughout the day. Even managing to kill the fort's commanding officer, Major Lionel Booth. By 3:30 PM, Forrest demanded for the fort to surrender. Major William Bradford, Booth's second in command, requested a one hour cease-fire to confer with his officers and plan for Union reinforcements. However, Forrest, having received news of Union boats approaching the fort and suspecting Bradford for using the cease-fire to fortify his defenses, he announced that his men would storm the fort in twenty minutes.
Easily making it over the parapets and ditches protecting the fort, Confederate troops swiftly defeated the poorly led and organized Union soldiers. The fighting lasting less than a half hour. While of little strategic significance, eyewitness accounts and the ensuing congressional investigation of the battle, determined that a massacre had occurred in which an unknown number of mostly African American troops were killed after having surrendered. It is unclear how many soldiers were killed during the fighting as opposed to afterwards, but it is known that only 20% of Black soldiers at the battle were captured compared to 60% of the White soldiers.
Similar to the Alamo during the Texas Revolution, the battle at Fort Pillow became of huge importance to Black soldiers, their battle cry being, "Remember Fort Pillow!" During the Battle of New Market Heights, Black regiments spearheaded the attack, having to cross over 800 yards of open field in order to reach the Confederate line. The Black troops were encouraged to shout these words as they charged, the whole time being mowed down by Confederate forces. In the end, the Black troops were unwavering and proved extremely brave, able to overrun the Confederate's position despite heavy losses. This battle showed the worthiness of Blacks to serve in the army and debunked the myth that Black men could not fight as well as their White counterparts.
Works Cited:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Fort-Pillow-Massacre
https://www.civilwar.org/learn/articles/battle-new-market-heights-usct-soldiers-proved-their-heroism
Woodrow Wilson's Stroke
Woodrow Wilson was under a lot of stress during his presidency, and it definitely showed near the end of his second term. After dealing with WWI and Republican backlash over the League of Nations, Wilson was struggling to pass his reforms. Determined to win the people's support, he embarked on a national speaking tour throughout the United States to directly appeal to the American people. For nearly a month Wilson and his administration traveled from city to city by train, against the insistence by both his wife and his physician to not make the trip. Wilson had already overworked himself to exhaustion during "the Great War," and in early April of 1919 he contracted a severe case of influenza that was running rampant at the time. Thus, many close to him feared that this speaking tour would push him over the edge.
As the presidential train traveled across the Midwest and into the Great Plains states, Wilson's physical symptoms began to worsen. He became thinner and paler, he lost his appetite, his asthma worsened, and he complained of constant migraines. Unfortunately, despite his body telling him to stop, Wilson continued to give speeches and on the evening of Sept. 25, 1919, Wilson suffered a "mini-stroke." Dr. Grayson, his physician, noted that the facial muscles on the left side of his mouth were beginning to drag and loosen, indicating that Wilson was in danger of suffering from a full-fledged stroke. Wilson's condition only continued to deteriorate, and on Sept. 26, his secretary announced that the rest of the speaking tour would be cancelled due to Wilson suffering from "a nervous reaction in his digestive organs." He was quickly rushed back to the White House, where he would be forced to rest and be examined by doctors.
On Oct. 2, 1919, the president suffered a stroke. The stroke left Wilson severely paralyzed on his left side and partially blind in his right eye, along with other psychological disabilities that accompany a stroke. A few weeks later he suffered a urinary tract infection that nearly killed him, but his body was strong enough to survive the infection. Edith Wilson, Woodrow Wilson's wife, realized that her husband was in no condition to run the country and decided to take matters into her own hands. She shielded Woodrow's condition from the public and was essentially the country's chief executive until the end of his term. However she was never able to convince Congress to allow the country to join the League of Nations, which was Woodrow's main objective at the time, and Wilson's dream of a new democratic world order would not come to fruition for many years past his lifetime.
Source:
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/woodrow-wilson-stroke
As the presidential train traveled across the Midwest and into the Great Plains states, Wilson's physical symptoms began to worsen. He became thinner and paler, he lost his appetite, his asthma worsened, and he complained of constant migraines. Unfortunately, despite his body telling him to stop, Wilson continued to give speeches and on the evening of Sept. 25, 1919, Wilson suffered a "mini-stroke." Dr. Grayson, his physician, noted that the facial muscles on the left side of his mouth were beginning to drag and loosen, indicating that Wilson was in danger of suffering from a full-fledged stroke. Wilson's condition only continued to deteriorate, and on Sept. 26, his secretary announced that the rest of the speaking tour would be cancelled due to Wilson suffering from "a nervous reaction in his digestive organs." He was quickly rushed back to the White House, where he would be forced to rest and be examined by doctors.
On Oct. 2, 1919, the president suffered a stroke. The stroke left Wilson severely paralyzed on his left side and partially blind in his right eye, along with other psychological disabilities that accompany a stroke. A few weeks later he suffered a urinary tract infection that nearly killed him, but his body was strong enough to survive the infection. Edith Wilson, Woodrow Wilson's wife, realized that her husband was in no condition to run the country and decided to take matters into her own hands. She shielded Woodrow's condition from the public and was essentially the country's chief executive until the end of his term. However she was never able to convince Congress to allow the country to join the League of Nations, which was Woodrow's main objective at the time, and Wilson's dream of a new democratic world order would not come to fruition for many years past his lifetime.
Source:
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/woodrow-wilson-stroke
Friday, October 27, 2017
The Panama Canal
One of Teddy Roosevelt's greatest feats was building the Panama Canal in the early 1900s. Before the canal was built, American tradesmen had to travel thousands of miles around all of South America just to domestically transport products from coast to coast. The project's aim was to save American tourists and tradesmen the hardship of traveling around an entire continent. It worked, but only after overcoming a lot of politics and engineering obstacles.
During this time period, what is now Panama was part of Columbia, which didn't agree to the building of a canal. Tensions, however, were rising as the Panamanians wanted independence. He also knew that an independent Panama would support building the canal. So, Roosevelt used publicly supported the revolution. He used his classic "big stick" politics by bringing the American navy down to Columbia, showing America's strength. They never fired a shot.
Europeans had tried to build a canal about 20 years before Roosevelt. A frenchman named Ferdinand de Lesseps, seeking riches and stock increases for his company, had brought in a whole crew that used advanced technology to start digging. However, due to day upon day of torrential rain, insects, snakes, swamps, hellish heat, and disease, they quit halfway through, leaving their materials behind. This was perfect for Roosevelt! He agreed to pay the old French company $40,000,000 (while the Columbian government only got $10,000,000).
After the US helped Panama be free, work began. Engineering miracles were accomplished. To make ships travel up and downhill, a series of locks would raise ships from the Atlantic side to the level of the lake. The boats would cross the lake, then descend by another set of locks to the Pacific. The workers also dammed the Chagres River and created the Gatun Lake which stands today. Pesticides eradicated yellow fever in the area. Hundreds of thousands of cubic yards of rock were removed and destroyed. Remember, this is over a century ago, where equipment was more limited!
When the Panama Canal was completed in 1914, the world barely noticed. All eyes were turned toward a growing world war in Europe. The greatest engineering project in the history of the world had been dwarfed by the totality of World War I.
http://www.fasttrackteaching.com/ffap/Unit_6_World/U6_Panama_Canal.html
Thursday, October 26, 2017
Woodrow Wilson: A White Supremacist President
Woodrow Wilson is perhaps one of the more famous presidents in our nation's history. He has helped crack down on big business, increased wages for workers and minimized hours for laborers, and guided the US into one of the most brutal wars in history. His approach, called "New Freedom," worked tirelessly to ensure that no small business owners and non-educated laborers were left behind, and this culminated in the Clayton Antitrust Act, protecting labor unions and fair wages. However, one area that Willson should and has been fairly criticized for not cracking down upon was racial segregation.
Wilson's position on segregation was simple: he behaved as a white supremacist in a quiet way, and he outwardly claimed that he advocated for racial segregation in a quite stating "Segregation is not a humiliation but a benefit, and ought to be so regarded by you gentlemen." He said this in front of a civil rights leader, William Monroe Trotter, who was trying to argue for the desegregation of federal offices that he established earlier in his presidency. This was possible by including lots of Southern Democrats into his cabinet, and these people were responsible for his inability to truly crack down on any of the injustices destroying African American communities for decades since Reconstruction. His own history almost justifies why he took this position. As a Southerner from Virginia, many of the racial inequality issues that plagued black people were, in his eyes, completely normal and justified.
Wilson refused to take a stand on the issue of racial segregation and protect all citizens. But he was also significantly against women's rights. He did not offer to be much of a progressive on any fronts that expanded who were qualified to vote and take an impact in society. In race, he even went so far as to air the film Birth of a Nation , which glorified the likes of the Ku Klux Klan, the most notorious white supremacist group of the world. He later apologized for airing the film, but again that's not the point. He actually approved of airing this film as a progressive, unlike any president at this time.
Perhaps the worst part about Wilson's policy of segregating the federal government was the precedent that it set for race relations in the near future. By segregating the one unifying department of the government, there is no way for any state or region considering equality and suffrage if the federal government will not support their initiatives. His presidency only increased the lengths needed to truly bring black equality to the forefront of the nation's attention, and it was only until the efforts of the Civil Rights Movement of the 50s-60s that gained suffrage for African Americans.
Sources:
https://www.biography.com/people/woodrow-wilson-9534272
http://www.bu.edu/professorvoices/2013/03/04/the-long-forgotten-racial-attitudes-and-policies-of-woodrow-wilson/
Wilson refused to take a stand on the issue of racial segregation and protect all citizens. But he was also significantly against women's rights. He did not offer to be much of a progressive on any fronts that expanded who were qualified to vote and take an impact in society. In race, he even went so far as to air the film Birth of a Nation , which glorified the likes of the Ku Klux Klan, the most notorious white supremacist group of the world. He later apologized for airing the film, but again that's not the point. He actually approved of airing this film as a progressive, unlike any president at this time.
Perhaps the worst part about Wilson's policy of segregating the federal government was the precedent that it set for race relations in the near future. By segregating the one unifying department of the government, there is no way for any state or region considering equality and suffrage if the federal government will not support their initiatives. His presidency only increased the lengths needed to truly bring black equality to the forefront of the nation's attention, and it was only until the efforts of the Civil Rights Movement of the 50s-60s that gained suffrage for African Americans.
Sources:
https://www.biography.com/people/woodrow-wilson-9534272
http://www.bu.edu/professorvoices/2013/03/04/the-long-forgotten-racial-attitudes-and-policies-of-woodrow-wilson/
Wednesday, October 25, 2017
The Legacy of Edith Wilson
After the death of Ellen Wilson, Wilson was struck with grief for his wife meanwhile faced with the oncoming pressures of war. A few months later, Wilson was remarried to the beautiful Edith Bolling Galt.
Edith was an interesting woman, a direct descendant of Pocahontas and leading a controversial legacy, Edith reshaped the role of the First Lady forever. As soon as Edith became First Lady Wilson granted her an unprecedented amount of power. Wilson allowed Edith to accompany him while he read highly classified documents and she also often sat in on discussions with his advisors. Not only that, but Edith often criticized political figures and foreign representatives. Edith held so much power within the White House she would often deny Wilson’s advisors audience with him if she deemed him too busy. The First Lady volunteered for the Red Cross at the beginning of World War I and even had sheep grazing on the lawn of the White House sending money made off the wool towards war efforts.
Surprisingly, Mrs. Wilson was not a supporter of the woman’s suffrage movement. Edith changed the role of the First Lady in the White House forever, surely she would have supported the rights of women. Apparently, Edith referred to them as “those devils in the workhouse”. Later on, Woodrow Wilson favored women’s suffrage, though not from the influence of Edith.
By the end of the war, President Wilson’s health was suffering. By the end of his Nationwide Tour Wilson was physically exhausted. When he returned home to the White House Wilson suffered a stroke. Immediately Edith took action. She refused to allow Wilson to resign. With Wilson’s illness, Edith practically took control of the presidency. It was she who individual cabinet members spoke to. It was she who reviewed documents and the many decisions that needed to be made.
Edith Wilson lived a long life, dying in 1961. Her entire life, Edith dismissed any claims that she assumed the full power of the presidency. Her entire life, she was dedicated to Woodrow Wilson and protecting as well as enhancing his legacy.
CITE:
https://www.biography.com/news/edith-wilson-first-president-biography-facts
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edith-Wilson
Living History - A link to the Past
Came across this story...just a reminder of the history that still lives around us. History is not past, it is always present.
http://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/21145911/a-boy-return-world-series-91-years-later
http://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/21145911/a-boy-return-world-series-91-years-later
Sunday, October 22, 2017
America's Relationship with Cuba
Today, when the topic of America's relationship with Cuba is brought up, the first thing that comes to mind is usually along the lines of the Cuban Missile Crisis or the tense relationship between the two nations. However, that has not always been the case and America has a long history with the island that stretches before the Cold War.
In 1898 after the Spanish American war, Cuba was handed over to the United States along with Guam and Puerto Rico because of Spain's defeat. Despite this, the United States decided to grant Cuba independence with two conditions : US intervention when deemed necessary and a perpetual lease on naval base Guantanamo Bay. This began the precarious relationship the the US had with Cuba in which both countries were able to benefit. For example, the United States squashed rebellion and invested in the island while Cuba became a place for inspiration, as seen through Hemingway writing The Old Man and the Sea in Cuba. Ultimately, the United States and Cuba tolerated the restriction put in place as they realized the benefits that could be gained.
However, this wasn't to last long. The Cuban Revolution occurred, with the United States backing Fidel Castro and his guerrilla army in overthrowing the established government. After Castro's win, the United States recognized the regime and brought Castro to the Untied States, the last display of cooperation and strong ties between Cuba and the United States.
Ironically, the government that the United States backed during the Cuban Revolution turned their backs on American interests. Private property was seized, private companies were nationalized, and high tariffs on American goods decreased imports of American goods into Cuba. Naturally, America was infuriated, and trade restrictions were put in place, creating the idea of "Yankee Imperialism." This led Castro to look towards the Soviet Union to replace the trade lost with the United States. With that, the two countries cut all diplomatic relations and Switzerland became the messenger between the two.
Once the ties were cut, Cuba's economy began to spiral down, the reliance on the United States showing once Cuba no longer had access to American goods. Furthermore, the US sent in spies and planned attempts to assassinate Castro, ranging from crazy plans to ones that simply never worked out. This eventually led to the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the animosity between the two nations boiling down to this tense situation. Eventually, the Soviet Union and the United States reached an agreement and the possibility of nuclear war was prevented. However, American anti-Cuba sentiment increased and Americans wouldn't forgive Cuba for the outrageous actions of allowing nuclear weapons to be placed so close to the United States for many decades to come.
From then on, America continued having a strained relationship with their neighboring island, accepting asylum seekers while strengthening embargo rules with the Helms-Burton act, all because two US civilian airplanes were shot down. Yet, once again, America helped Cubans after Hurricane Michelle, creating an agreement that allowed America to sell food to Cuba, eventually becoming Cuba's main supplier of food.
Even today, the relationship that America has with Cuba is still changing. Recently, the remittance and travel restrictions on Cuba have been lifted and Americans visited Cuba for the first time in decade. Yet, the relationship is still unstable, with the new administration looking towards a different way of dealing with the island.
Just like always, America's relationship with Cuba is not straightforward, and it goes to show how relationships between nations can be complicated. As America continues to move forward, it will be interesting to see just how much more our relationship with Cuba will change, and what that means for both American citizens and those of Cuba.
Sources :
http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trumps-cuba-policy/story?id=48058622
http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1891359,00.html
I ain't saying she a gold digger- Alberta Martin
Dying on May 31 2004, Alberta Martin was the last living widow of a confederate soldier. Nearly 75 years after her husband's death, Alberta had been living in in Enterprise Alabama. Since the 1990s when she was publicly recognized as the last civil war widow, she had been living in "obscurity". While many criticized Alberta labelling her as a gold digger because of the near 60 year age difference between herself and husband, the marriage between Alberta and her late husband had been one of “convenience”.
Alberta Stewart, born December 4th 1906,was the daughter of small town Alabama sharecroppers who lead a frugal and impoverished life. With the death of her mother at age 11 Alberta had a harsh upbringing from her father.
At the age of 18, Alberta had met cabdriver Harold Farrow to whom she married and bore one son. However a raging alcoholic, less than 6 short months after the birth of his son, Harold was killed in a drunk car accident. In response to the tragic accident, Alberta's father had moved the two of them plus the baby to a house further south in Alabama. Their neighbor William Jasper Martin, was an 81 year old who was a widowed civil war veteran living off of a whopping $50-a-month pension. The elderly man quickly took to the young Alberta and frequently proposed the idea of a marriage but only as she needed help and money to raise her son. However after much a few short months of courtship, the two agreed on a marriage of "convenience" so that once Mr. Martin was gone, the young Ms. Stewart would sill have the means necessary to take care of her infant.
On December 10, 1927, Alberta Stewart officially became Alberta Martin, and a short 10 months later the two bore a baby boy for which they named William. While Alberta had told the times, " the old man was crazy about the baby," their married life was far from familial and cohesive. Alberta who often found Martin to be "hot tempered and jealous", explained that life was "hard but it was a good life too... We were happy". The two addressed each other as "sis" and "Mr. Martin" and war was seldom talked about except in snippets when William would be reminded of the hardships of the war such as the bitter cold and digging up and eating raw potatoes for food.
In 1998 during an interview with public radio, when asked if she ever loved Mr. Martin, Alberta said," I don't know. It ain't the same love that you got for a young man, if that's what your asking. he slept on one bed and me on the other one. People when they get old like that, they don't require kissing and hugging and necking and one thing or another. The old saying is, ' Better to be an old man's darling than a young man's slave.'"
Less than 5 years after their marriage, Mr Martin passed away. Two months after, Alberta married Martin's grandson Charlie Martin. However upon her late husband William Jasper Martins death, Alberta was given no such pension as she had yet been recognized as a war veteran widow. It wasn't until 6 years after the death of Mr. Martin that Dr. Chancey, a member of the Sons of Confederate Veterans paid her a visit and secured Alberta a confederate widows pension.
Alabama senate decreed it a "pure joy" to grant her widows pension and till her deathbed Alberta was a symbol in the south and a "link to the past".
McLellan | Times Staff Writer, Dennis. “Alberta Martin, 97; Believed to Be Last Confederate Widow.” Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles Times, 1 June 2004, articles.latimes.com/2004/jun/01/local/me-martin1.
Press, The Associated. “Alberta Martin, 97, Confederate Widow, Dies.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 1 June 2004, www.nytimes.com/2004/06/01/us/alberta-martin-97-confederate-widow-dies.html.
“Alberta Martin.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 26 Sept. 2017, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta_Martin.
What side would Jefferson have taken?
Jefferson was seen as a conservative for his time. But would he be considered the same during the secession and civil war crisis? Historians have argued over this issue for a long time stating that Jefferson was a major advocate for a weaker central government and as prostate rights as can be while others argued the times were different and his feelings about slavery would make him hesitant towards the secession movement in his beloved south.
This first section will discuss the points that would potentially make him help and influence the south into secession.
1. State rights
One of the political ideas that defined Jefferson so strongly was his devotion to a smaller weaker federal government that gave way to state rights. He constantly battled with Alexander Hamilton over an agrarian society based in the south to Hamilton's capitalist commercial economy. Jefferson always felt that Hamilton's system allowed the government to have too much power which would eventually lead to restricted rights for the people. This can be seen in his support of the articles of confederation which was the predecessor to the constitution. It called for a weaker central government. When we look at the common values shared among the states who wanted to form the confederacy they were very similar prompting the feeling that Jefferson may want to succeed. The objective for the south in the secession was to form a confederacy where the central government was weaker which gives room for more state rights. Specifically slavery and less regulation on the farms which were their basis of the economy. Which leads me to the next point.
2. Economy
Thomas Jefferson was always known for wanting an agrarian-based economy. He was a man from Virginia who stuck to his southern roots. One of the main battles between the north and south was the debate over slavery. The north wanted to abolish slavery however the south saw it as a cornerstone in their agrarian production which happened to be the basis of their economy. Jefferson also would have seen how the growth of an industrial economy in the north was gradually taking away the agrarian economy. For Jefferson, a loyal southerner he would have sided with the secession side so they would be able to have their own economy the way Jefferson had always envisioned it. However, in the next couple of sections, Jefferson fundamental views will show us something different
This next section will discuss why he would have sided with the Union
1. Founding father
Although Jefferson's ideas were almost all similar to that of the Confederates he was a founding father. He had fought very hard in the political arena to help the US leave England. Would he really have just help split the country he had fought so much to form? In their dying days, political and economic rivals for so many years, Hamilton and Jefferson, had advocated in their dying years to do as much as possible to keep the country together. At such an early stage they had seen how the political battles beginning with them were growing bigger and bigger. This alone really counteracts Jefferson's reasons for leaving. He has great loyalty to his causes and origins. Would he really completely dismantle something he fought so hard to create?
2. The issue on slavery
One of the main issues that was causing the split between the north and south was slavery. In the south slavery was a fundemental tool for the plantations. And before the major debates rang out, if we go back to when the abolitionist movement began, we see Jefferson supporting the abolition of slavery. Some may argue that he had slaves making him a hypocrite and that he only sided for slavery for political means and that he would turn back on his point once the issue became a real threat. But we will never know, and from his speeches and documents we see him strongly speeking against slavery. He had an affair with a slave after all, so he must value them. Overall I think when it would have come down to slavey he would be torn between the moral injustices that slavery brings and his beliefs in a strong agrarian society which at the time relied heavily on slavery, making him hesitant on wether or not to side with secession.
Answering the Question:
There are strong cases for both arguments. However I feel like he would not seceed because of how strongly he advocated against it before his death when he and even is biggest rival Hamilton saw how divided the nation was becoming. Instead of pushing for secession I believe he would have looked for other compromises. He would have fought on the issues of slavery agrarian economy and the role of the central government just as he had when he was alive against Hamilton. Attempting to fill the government with as many politicians that were on his side. For Jefferson would not have supported secession but would have looked for a better solution that would keep the nation together.
http://thehistoryhacker.com/2013/01/22/if-thomas-jefferson-had-lived-in-the-time-of-the-civil-war/
https://www.monticello.org/site/plantation-and-slavery/thomas-jefferson-and-sally-hemings-brief-account
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