Showing posts with label Cody Theobald. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Cody Theobald. Show all posts
Thursday, May 17, 2018
Uncle Tom's Cabin
Uncle Tom's Cabin, written by Harriet Beecher Stowe and published in the United States in 1852, was an abolitionist novel that achieved widespread popularity, particularly among white readers in the North. It vividly describes every aspect of a slave's life, following the story of Uncle Tom, who is depicted as a saintly, dignified slave. Over 300,000 copies of the book were sold in the United States within a year of its publication, and it also sold very well in England. Furthermore, Uncle Tom's Cabin was adapted into various theatrical melodramas, further popularizing the story and the animosity it inspired towards the South.
The most significant impact of this book was that it informed readers across the North of the horrors of slavery on a far more personal level than ever before. On the other hand, Uncle Tom's Cabin was met with outrange in the South and was branded as false and irresponsibly exaggerative. This exacerbated the already tense debate of slavery between the North and the South, which we now know would eventually lead to the Civil War.
Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uncle-Toms-Cabin
http://www.ushistory.org/us/28d.asp
Tuesday, May 15, 2018
The Dust Bowl
The Dust Bowl refers to the drought that affected the Southern Plains region of the United States. Severe dust storms swept across the region during the 1930s, killing many crops and livestock and thus impoverishing many small American farmers. This, coupled with the Great Depression, drove many families westward in hopes of new economic opportunities.
"The Dirty Thirties" would last for about a decade, but it had long-term economic impacts that affected the region for much longer. By 1934, around 35 million acres of former farm land had been rendered useless for farming, while another 125 million acres were close to reaching this point. Regular rainfall would return to the region by the end of 1939, but the damage had already been done; the agricultural value of farmland would take decades to recover and much of the population moved to California and other West Coast states.
The most iconic image of the Dust Bowl are the "black blizzards", severe dust storms that swept the Great Plains. These clouds of topsoil would often blacken the sky for up to days at a time, and there was no way to escape the dust. The dust could penetrate even the most well-sealed homes, leaving itself everywhere on food, skin, and furniture. Even worse, some people developed "dust pneumonia", which gave them chest pain and made it difficult to breath. While there is no official number for how many people died, estimates range from hundreds to several thousand people.
Around 2.5 million people left the Dust Bowl states, which include Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma during the 1930s. This was the largest migration in American history, with over 440,000 people leaving Oklahoma alone. Many of these migrants were poverty-stricken and traveled west looking for work. 250,000 Oklahoma migrants moved to California between 1935 and 1940, a third of whom settled in the rich agricultural San Joaquin Valley. These dust bowl refugees were called "Okies," and they often faced discrimination and extremely low wages upon reaching California. Many of them were forced to live in shantytowns and tents along irrigation ditches, and the term "Okie" was soon used to refer to any poor Dust Bowl migrant, regardless of their true origin.
Sources:
https://www.history.com/topics/dust-bowl
http://www.pbs.org/show/dust-bowl/
"The Dirty Thirties" would last for about a decade, but it had long-term economic impacts that affected the region for much longer. By 1934, around 35 million acres of former farm land had been rendered useless for farming, while another 125 million acres were close to reaching this point. Regular rainfall would return to the region by the end of 1939, but the damage had already been done; the agricultural value of farmland would take decades to recover and much of the population moved to California and other West Coast states.
The most iconic image of the Dust Bowl are the "black blizzards", severe dust storms that swept the Great Plains. These clouds of topsoil would often blacken the sky for up to days at a time, and there was no way to escape the dust. The dust could penetrate even the most well-sealed homes, leaving itself everywhere on food, skin, and furniture. Even worse, some people developed "dust pneumonia", which gave them chest pain and made it difficult to breath. While there is no official number for how many people died, estimates range from hundreds to several thousand people.
Around 2.5 million people left the Dust Bowl states, which include Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma during the 1930s. This was the largest migration in American history, with over 440,000 people leaving Oklahoma alone. Many of these migrants were poverty-stricken and traveled west looking for work. 250,000 Oklahoma migrants moved to California between 1935 and 1940, a third of whom settled in the rich agricultural San Joaquin Valley. These dust bowl refugees were called "Okies," and they often faced discrimination and extremely low wages upon reaching California. Many of them were forced to live in shantytowns and tents along irrigation ditches, and the term "Okie" was soon used to refer to any poor Dust Bowl migrant, regardless of their true origin.
Sources:
https://www.history.com/topics/dust-bowl
http://www.pbs.org/show/dust-bowl/
Sunday, May 13, 2018
The Intolerable Acts
The Intolerable Acts of 1774 were a series of retaliatory measure enacted by the British Parliament in response to colonial resistance. Britain, annoyed by the increased resistance during the winter of 1773-74, wanted to assert its authority over America and keep a firm grip over its economy. Boston was hurt most by these pieces of legislation, as it was the center of the American independence movement and was the location of the Boston Tea Party of 1773. These "Intolerable Acts", also called the Coercive Acts, angered many colonists and furthered the cause for American independence.
The first of these acts, called the Boston Port Bill, closed the city's harbor until full reparations were paid for all the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party. The second, called the Massachusetts Government Act, abolished the colony's charter of 1691 and transformed Massachusetts into a "crown colony", replacing the government with a new military government and placing restrictions on unapproved town meetings. The third was the Administration of Justice Act, which allowed British officials under trial for capital offenses to have their trials back in England or any other colony. The fourth and most well known of these acts permitted British troops to be quartered in occupied American dwellings, reminding many colonists of the Quartering Act that had expired in 1770. This new Quartering Act applied to all the colonies of British America, angering Americans all over the continent.
The Intolerable Acts were an attempt by the British to reestablish control over the American colonies, but it completely backfired. Rather than suppressing colonial dissent, these acts only furthered the movement for American independence and united the colonies under a single cause against the British.
Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Intolerable-Acts
https://www.theblaze.com/news/2017/07/04/britain-passes-the-coercive-acts-they-should-be-called-the-intolerable-acts
The first of these acts, called the Boston Port Bill, closed the city's harbor until full reparations were paid for all the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party. The second, called the Massachusetts Government Act, abolished the colony's charter of 1691 and transformed Massachusetts into a "crown colony", replacing the government with a new military government and placing restrictions on unapproved town meetings. The third was the Administration of Justice Act, which allowed British officials under trial for capital offenses to have their trials back in England or any other colony. The fourth and most well known of these acts permitted British troops to be quartered in occupied American dwellings, reminding many colonists of the Quartering Act that had expired in 1770. This new Quartering Act applied to all the colonies of British America, angering Americans all over the continent.
The Intolerable Acts were an attempt by the British to reestablish control over the American colonies, but it completely backfired. Rather than suppressing colonial dissent, these acts only furthered the movement for American independence and united the colonies under a single cause against the British.
Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Intolerable-Acts
https://www.theblaze.com/news/2017/07/04/britain-passes-the-coercive-acts-they-should-be-called-the-intolerable-acts
Sunday, April 29, 2018
The Persian Gulf War
The origins of the Persian Gulf War began with Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein's invasion of neighboring country Kuwait in August 1990. Iraq, having just finished a long-running war with Iraq, accused Kuwait and Saudi Arabia of artificially lowering oil prices, accusing them of being under the control of Western oil-buying nations. Hussein started gathering troops on Kuwait's border, and much to the rest of the world's surprise, he declared Kuwait an "artificial state" that was carved out of Iraq by colonialists. After a failed attempt by President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt to negotiate peace between the two, on August 2, 1990, Hussein ordered the officially ordered the invasion of Kuwait.
This move shocked Iraq's neighboring Middle Eastern countries, and, opposite to what Hussein thought would happen, they asked the United States and other Western powers to intervene and stop him. The United Nations Security Council responded by demanding Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait, and the United States sent fighter planes to Saudi Arabia as a safeguard against any possible further Iraqi expansion under Operation Desert Shield.
Despite this, Iraq increased its troop count in Kuwait to 300,000. Hussein tried to garner support for his invasion from the rest of the Muslim world, but his efforts mostly failed. Thus, in order to maximize his troop count, he signed a hasty treaty with Iran, a longtime rival.
By January of 1990, the U.N. Security Council authorized the use of "all necessary means" to be used against Iraq in order to push it out of Kuwait, creating a coalition force of personnel most from the United States but as well as Britain, France, Germany, the Soviet Union, Japan, Egypt and Saudi Arabia. On the other side, Iraq had the support of Jordan, Algeria, the Sudan, Yemen, Tunisia and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). The United Nations coalition effort, known as Operation Desert Storm, used the latest military technology to quickly establish air superiority in the region.
In February, the coalition shifted its focus to the ground, launching a massive allied ground offensive, called Operation Desert Sabre, on February 24. In the following days, the coalition troops were quickly encircled and defeated and were forced out of Kuwait and back into Iraq. Following this victory, President George H. W. Bush declared a ceasefire on February 29, officially ending the Persian Gulf War. The peace treaty signed forced Iraq to recognize Kuwait's sovereignty and to get rid of all its "weapons of mass destruction", which included nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. This vague terminology would later resurface in the Iraq War under George W. Bush, who would initiate a war with Iraq under the accusations that Hussein still harbored "weapons of mass destruction". The second Persian Gulf War, more often dubbed the Iraq War, began on March 20, 2003.
Sources:
Tuesday, April 10, 2018
The Great Recession of 2008
The Great Recession of 2008, which was the greatest international economic crisis since the Great Depression, has its roots traced back to the United States, which saw housing prices begin to fall in 2006 after years of only skyrocketing upwards. Due to the belief that the value of real estate would only increase, subprime mortgages, mortgages that were given to borrowers with little to no credit, were widely made available by many banks and investing firms. If the borrower failed to pay off their mortgage, the lender could seize the house that was purchased and use that to turn a profit. Banks were willing to provide these subprime mortgages because they believed that house prices would always remain high, so even if the borrower could not pay off their debts, they bank would still make money either way. However, when the real estate market collapsed, many of the providers of subprime mortgages lost a lot of money when the houses they seized could not be resold at an adequate price.
If the crash of the real estate industry only affected the providers of these loans, then how did it lead to an entire economic collapse? The answer lies in how these subprime mortgages were passed around. Rather than merely holding the loans, the mortgage lenders often sold these loans to other banks or to Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac, two private mortgage companies that's sole purpose was to buy up mortgages. Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac would then sell these mortgages they acquired to other investment banks, who in turn bundle these up and sell them to investors as "low-risk" investments. Thus, when the housing market crashed, both the aforementioned institutions as well as the investors who the subprime mortgages were sold to lost a lot of their money.
In 2008, the entire American economy shrank by 0.7% in the first quarter, signaling the start of the Great Recession. However, it wasn't until the third quarter that experts realized that the country had fallen into an economic recession, as it became clear after the economy had shrunk four quarters in a row. The housing market continued its downwards spiral, dropping 28% since its peak in 2006. Confidence in the American economy plummeted, and this reverberated throughout the entire world.
The crisis became so bad that even giant institutions were going bankrupt. Among these were Countrywide Financial Corp., the country's largest mortgage lender. The company's value plummeted, resulting in its purchase in January 2008 by Bank of America for a fraction of its market value. Another victim was Wall Street investment house Bear Stearns, which had to have its failing assets absorbed up by the Federal Reserve. The Fed's involvement in the bailout of Bear Stearns showed how bad the situation had become; the fact that Bush's conservative administration was willing to spend so much federal taxpayer money to save the economy was astonishing. As many other major institutions went bankrupt, the government proceeded to bail them out.
What saved the economy was the $787 Billion Stimulus Package that Congress approved in March 2009. In ended the recession by July of that year, granting $288 billion in tax cuts, $224 billion in unemployment benefits, and $275 billion "shovel-ready" public works. The bill also included $54 billion in tax write-offs in small businesses. This economic stimulus was able to bring the country out of the recession, but it took a couple of years for it to fully do so.
Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Financial-Crisis-of-2008-The-1484264
https://www.thebalance.com/the-great-recession-of-2008-explanation-with-dates-4056832
If the crash of the real estate industry only affected the providers of these loans, then how did it lead to an entire economic collapse? The answer lies in how these subprime mortgages were passed around. Rather than merely holding the loans, the mortgage lenders often sold these loans to other banks or to Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac, two private mortgage companies that's sole purpose was to buy up mortgages. Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac would then sell these mortgages they acquired to other investment banks, who in turn bundle these up and sell them to investors as "low-risk" investments. Thus, when the housing market crashed, both the aforementioned institutions as well as the investors who the subprime mortgages were sold to lost a lot of their money.
In 2008, the entire American economy shrank by 0.7% in the first quarter, signaling the start of the Great Recession. However, it wasn't until the third quarter that experts realized that the country had fallen into an economic recession, as it became clear after the economy had shrunk four quarters in a row. The housing market continued its downwards spiral, dropping 28% since its peak in 2006. Confidence in the American economy plummeted, and this reverberated throughout the entire world.
The crisis became so bad that even giant institutions were going bankrupt. Among these were Countrywide Financial Corp., the country's largest mortgage lender. The company's value plummeted, resulting in its purchase in January 2008 by Bank of America for a fraction of its market value. Another victim was Wall Street investment house Bear Stearns, which had to have its failing assets absorbed up by the Federal Reserve. The Fed's involvement in the bailout of Bear Stearns showed how bad the situation had become; the fact that Bush's conservative administration was willing to spend so much federal taxpayer money to save the economy was astonishing. As many other major institutions went bankrupt, the government proceeded to bail them out.
What saved the economy was the $787 Billion Stimulus Package that Congress approved in March 2009. In ended the recession by July of that year, granting $288 billion in tax cuts, $224 billion in unemployment benefits, and $275 billion "shovel-ready" public works. The bill also included $54 billion in tax write-offs in small businesses. This economic stimulus was able to bring the country out of the recession, but it took a couple of years for it to fully do so.
Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Financial-Crisis-of-2008-The-1484264
https://www.thebalance.com/the-great-recession-of-2008-explanation-with-dates-4056832
Monday, March 19, 2018
2000 Presidential Election
The presidential election of 2000 was one of the most tightly contested in history, with Republican candidate George W. Bush narrowly winning the election by five electoral votes (271 to 266). However Al Gore, the Democratic candidate and the then-Vice President under Bill Clinton, won the popular vote with 50,996,582 votes compared to Bush's 50,456,062. This was one of only five elections in which the popular winner was defeated (1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016). The entire election came down to the single swing state of Florida, which Bush won with much controversy.
The vote in Florida came down to a mere 600 votes out of a total of six million, a margin so narrow that a machine recount was ordered (as a large portion of the votes had been checked by hand). The machine recount deemed Bush the winner by only 327 votes, which many Gore supporters argued could also be inaccurate. Various court challenges were issued, as there were many "muddy" ballots, which were ballots that did not clearly indicate which candidate was selected. There was also a problem with the ballot design in Palm Beach county, which caused many Gore voters to accidentally vote for Pat Buchanan, the third-party candidate. Put together, these issues could have been enough to change the Bush victory into a Gore victory.
The Florida Supreme Court eventually ruled 4-3 to order a statewide manual recount of the undervotes (ballots that machines could not clearly determine who was voted for). This reduced Bush's lead to 154 votes, and the Bush campaign, fearing that they would lose their voting majority, filed an appeal with the U.S. Supreme Court, asking to delay the recounts until the Supreme Court could hear the case. The Court agreed, and when they heard the case on December 12, they ruled 5-4 to reverse the Florida Supreme Court's recounter order, arguing that the recount would not be completed by December 18, the deadline for certifying the state's electors. This controversial decision effectively awarded Bush the presidency, ending a month-long dispute over the results of the election.
Sources:
https://www.270towin.com/2000_Election/
https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-2000
The vote in Florida came down to a mere 600 votes out of a total of six million, a margin so narrow that a machine recount was ordered (as a large portion of the votes had been checked by hand). The machine recount deemed Bush the winner by only 327 votes, which many Gore supporters argued could also be inaccurate. Various court challenges were issued, as there were many "muddy" ballots, which were ballots that did not clearly indicate which candidate was selected. There was also a problem with the ballot design in Palm Beach county, which caused many Gore voters to accidentally vote for Pat Buchanan, the third-party candidate. Put together, these issues could have been enough to change the Bush victory into a Gore victory.
The Florida Supreme Court eventually ruled 4-3 to order a statewide manual recount of the undervotes (ballots that machines could not clearly determine who was voted for). This reduced Bush's lead to 154 votes, and the Bush campaign, fearing that they would lose their voting majority, filed an appeal with the U.S. Supreme Court, asking to delay the recounts until the Supreme Court could hear the case. The Court agreed, and when they heard the case on December 12, they ruled 5-4 to reverse the Florida Supreme Court's recounter order, arguing that the recount would not be completed by December 18, the deadline for certifying the state's electors. This controversial decision effectively awarded Bush the presidency, ending a month-long dispute over the results of the election.
Sources:
https://www.270towin.com/2000_Election/
https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-2000
Sunday, March 11, 2018
The Reagan Assassination Attempt
On March 30, 1981, John Hinckley Jr. attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan, shooting six shots from his Harrington and Richardson revolver in the president's direction. Reagan, who just came out of the Washington Hilton Hotel on Connecticut Avenue after a speech to AFL-CIO leaders, was hit in the chest, resulting in his left lung collapsing. However the gunman also hit three others: Timothy McCarthy (Secret Service agent), Thomas Delahanty (District of Columbia policeman), and James Brady (Reagan's press secretary). McCarthy and Delahanty would both fully recover from their wounds, but Brady was shot in the head and suffered permanent brain damage, as the bullet was lodged in the part of the brain that controls emotion and personality.
After being shot, Reagan was immediately shoved into a limousine and rushed to the George Washing University Hospital. Despite being in a critical situation, Reagan remained jovial, famously telling his surgeons: "Please tell me you're Republicans." His condition became stable after a two-hour operation, and he was even able to sign a bill from his hospital bed. Reagan's popularity skyrocketed after the incident, as he remained calm and poised under fire and earned the sympathy of many Americans. This boost in support enabled him to push his economic policies through a Democratic-controlled Congress, and his much-advertised "Reaganomics" soon came into effect.
Ronald Reagan was the eighth American President to be an assassin's target and the fourth to survive such an endeavor. Presidents Lincoln, Garfield, McKinley, and Kennedy had all been killed, whereas Jackson, Truman, Ford, and now Reagan were survivors.
Sources:
https://www.politico.com/story/2017/03/president-reagan-shot-march-30-1981-236656
https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0330.html?mcubz=0
http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/03/30/avlon.reagan.shooting/index.html
After being shot, Reagan was immediately shoved into a limousine and rushed to the George Washing University Hospital. Despite being in a critical situation, Reagan remained jovial, famously telling his surgeons: "Please tell me you're Republicans." His condition became stable after a two-hour operation, and he was even able to sign a bill from his hospital bed. Reagan's popularity skyrocketed after the incident, as he remained calm and poised under fire and earned the sympathy of many Americans. This boost in support enabled him to push his economic policies through a Democratic-controlled Congress, and his much-advertised "Reaganomics" soon came into effect.
Ronald Reagan was the eighth American President to be an assassin's target and the fourth to survive such an endeavor. Presidents Lincoln, Garfield, McKinley, and Kennedy had all been killed, whereas Jackson, Truman, Ford, and now Reagan were survivors.
Sources:
https://www.politico.com/story/2017/03/president-reagan-shot-march-30-1981-236656
https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0330.html?mcubz=0
http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/03/30/avlon.reagan.shooting/index.html
Wednesday, December 6, 2017
Pointe du Hoc
Pointe du Hoc, a 100-meter-high cliff positioned between Utah and Omaha Beaches, contained six German 155mm cannons in heavily reinforced bunkers that were capable of inflicting massive damage on both beaches. In order for D-Day to go as planned, it was determined that Point du Hoc, the strongest of the German defensive positions on the Norman coast, had to be captured. Weeks before D-Day, the Allies sent heavy bombers from both the U.S. Air Force and the British Bomber Command to bombard the area and continually did so up to the dawn of June 6. Then, it was the battleship Texas's turn to shell the position. In total, Pointe du Hoc got hit by over ten kilotons of explosives, which put together is equivalent to the power of the atomic bomb that was later dropped on Hiroshima. The Texas finally stopped firing at 6:30 in the morning, the exact time the American Rangers were scheduled overtake the cliff.
The soldiers were carried to the beach on LCA boats, slow and heavy landing craft that sacrificed mobility for security. Water sprayed all over the sides as the LACs chugged along, and many of the soldiers became seasick, having just eaten large meals prior to boarding. However, everything seemed to be going smoothly until they realized that they were heading towards the wrong beach. The British sailors captaining the LCAs were accidentally directing the ships towards Pointe de la Percée instead, which was around halfway between the Vierville draw and Point du Hoc. This costly error caused the rangers to arrive at Pointe du Hoc 35 minutes later than planned, giving the Germans time to recover from the bombardments and regroup their defenses.
Once the soldiers made it to the beach, they were charged with the nearly impossible task of scaling the massive cliff that the Germans were on top of. They had to use ropes and rope ladders to climb to the top, and just getting to the ropes was a challenge all in itself, as German machine guns fired all across the beach, killing countless men in their methodical sweeps. To make things worse, the Germans on the top were cutting the ropes and tossing grenades over the cliff. Despite all this, within five minutes the rangers were at the top, and ten minutes later, most of the rest of the soldiers were up.
As they surveyed the landscape, the soldiers quickly realized that the guns weren't there. Nevertheless, the rangers moved on to their next objective: to set up roadblocks on the paved road that connected Grandcamp and Vierville in order to prevent German reinforcements from moving to Omaha. As they proceeded inland they were met with heavy German resistance, resulting in massive casualties and injuries that overwhelmed the Army medics. However, by 9:00 they were finally able to set up the roadblocks and messaged back "Located Pointe du Hoc -- mission accomplished -- need ammunition and reinforcement -- many casualties." Only 25% of the original fighting force was able to continue fighting, but the Germans were never able to retake Pointe du Hoc.
Sources:
https://armyhistory.org/rudders-rangers-and-the-boys-of-pointe-du-hoc-the-u-s-army-rangers-mission-in-the-early-morning-hours-of-6-june-1944/
http://www.worldwar2history.info/D-Day/Pointe-Du-Hoc.html
The soldiers were carried to the beach on LCA boats, slow and heavy landing craft that sacrificed mobility for security. Water sprayed all over the sides as the LACs chugged along, and many of the soldiers became seasick, having just eaten large meals prior to boarding. However, everything seemed to be going smoothly until they realized that they were heading towards the wrong beach. The British sailors captaining the LCAs were accidentally directing the ships towards Pointe de la Percée instead, which was around halfway between the Vierville draw and Point du Hoc. This costly error caused the rangers to arrive at Pointe du Hoc 35 minutes later than planned, giving the Germans time to recover from the bombardments and regroup their defenses.
Once the soldiers made it to the beach, they were charged with the nearly impossible task of scaling the massive cliff that the Germans were on top of. They had to use ropes and rope ladders to climb to the top, and just getting to the ropes was a challenge all in itself, as German machine guns fired all across the beach, killing countless men in their methodical sweeps. To make things worse, the Germans on the top were cutting the ropes and tossing grenades over the cliff. Despite all this, within five minutes the rangers were at the top, and ten minutes later, most of the rest of the soldiers were up.
As they surveyed the landscape, the soldiers quickly realized that the guns weren't there. Nevertheless, the rangers moved on to their next objective: to set up roadblocks on the paved road that connected Grandcamp and Vierville in order to prevent German reinforcements from moving to Omaha. As they proceeded inland they were met with heavy German resistance, resulting in massive casualties and injuries that overwhelmed the Army medics. However, by 9:00 they were finally able to set up the roadblocks and messaged back "Located Pointe du Hoc -- mission accomplished -- need ammunition and reinforcement -- many casualties." Only 25% of the original fighting force was able to continue fighting, but the Germans were never able to retake Pointe du Hoc.
Sources:
https://armyhistory.org/rudders-rangers-and-the-boys-of-pointe-du-hoc-the-u-s-army-rangers-mission-in-the-early-morning-hours-of-6-june-1944/
http://www.worldwar2history.info/D-Day/Pointe-Du-Hoc.html
Sunday, December 3, 2017
The Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project, lasting from 1942 to 1945, was an American government-sponsored research project that led to the development of the first atomic bombs. The research scientists, many of them refugees fleeing fascist regimes in Europe, believed they could use the newly discovered fission process to produce a military weapon. Albert Einstein, the most famous of the scientists, was able to convince President Franklin Roosevelt of the military potential of fission and to provide funding for the project, which would eventually be code named the "Manhattan Project."
The whole project revolved around finding a way to physically separate the radioactive atoms of uranium and plutonium, which were the main fissionable components of the proposed bomb. Several methods of separation were explored, and three were decided upon: the electromagnetic process, the diffusion process, and thermal diffusion. Though the first two methods required large, complex facilities and a huge amount of electricity, all three were tested at the Clinton Engineer Works, which later became known as Oak Ridge.
In a laboratory on an isolated mesa at Los Alamos, New Mexico, scientists worked on developing methods of reducing fissionable (reactive) products into pure metal and changing the structure of the metal into required shapes for the bomb. They also had to devise methods of bringing together enough of the fissionable material to achieve supercritical mass, which would result in a nuclear explosion. The scientists had to solve these issues before production could start, as these materials were costly and could not be wasted.
By the summer of 1945, enough plutonium-239 was produced by Hanford Works to produce a nuclear explosion. A field test was scheduled 120 miles south of Albuquerque, New Mexico, and on July 16, 1945, the first atomic bomb was exploded. Scientists and military officers took shelter in bunkers 9 km away, and to their awe, the explosion came as a blinding flash of light, a sudden wave of heat, and then an immense roar of the shock wave that passed through the valley. The infamous mushroom cloud extended 40,000 feet into the air, and the bomb generated an explosive power equivalent to 15,000-20,000 tons of TNT. Following this successful test, two more atomic bombs, Little Boy and Fat Man, were produced, one consisting uranium-235 and the other plutonium. Both bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, being the first and only times nuclear weapons were used in a war.
Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Manhattan-Project
http://www.ushistory.org/us/51f.asp
The whole project revolved around finding a way to physically separate the radioactive atoms of uranium and plutonium, which were the main fissionable components of the proposed bomb. Several methods of separation were explored, and three were decided upon: the electromagnetic process, the diffusion process, and thermal diffusion. Though the first two methods required large, complex facilities and a huge amount of electricity, all three were tested at the Clinton Engineer Works, which later became known as Oak Ridge.
In a laboratory on an isolated mesa at Los Alamos, New Mexico, scientists worked on developing methods of reducing fissionable (reactive) products into pure metal and changing the structure of the metal into required shapes for the bomb. They also had to devise methods of bringing together enough of the fissionable material to achieve supercritical mass, which would result in a nuclear explosion. The scientists had to solve these issues before production could start, as these materials were costly and could not be wasted.
By the summer of 1945, enough plutonium-239 was produced by Hanford Works to produce a nuclear explosion. A field test was scheduled 120 miles south of Albuquerque, New Mexico, and on July 16, 1945, the first atomic bomb was exploded. Scientists and military officers took shelter in bunkers 9 km away, and to their awe, the explosion came as a blinding flash of light, a sudden wave of heat, and then an immense roar of the shock wave that passed through the valley. The infamous mushroom cloud extended 40,000 feet into the air, and the bomb generated an explosive power equivalent to 15,000-20,000 tons of TNT. Following this successful test, two more atomic bombs, Little Boy and Fat Man, were produced, one consisting uranium-235 and the other plutonium. Both bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, being the first and only times nuclear weapons were used in a war.
Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Manhattan-Project
http://www.ushistory.org/us/51f.asp
Sunday, November 26, 2017
Operation Barbarossa
On June 22, 1941, Adolf Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, sending over three million German soldiers and 3 thousand German tanks into Soviet territory. Although Germany had signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union two years ago in 1939, Hitler had long kept his eye on Soviet resources and knew that he would eventually invade the USSR. This single move is seen by many historians as Hitler's greatest mistake, as it forced Nazi Germany to fight a two-front war against the much better equipped Allies. The Germans were severely underprepared for such an endeavor and were pushed back by the Soviets, marking the beginning of the end for the Third Reich.
In the first months of the campaign, the German armies advanced deep into Soviet territory. In a single week, German forces advanced 200 miles deep into Soviet territory, and by December, Moscow was within their grasp. However, when the notorious Russian winter set in, the German advance came to a halt. German planners expected a Soviet collapse before winter, and thus they failed to provide adequate supplies to the army by the end of the year. Furthermore, the German troops advanced too rapidly and outran their supply lines, leaving their flanks vulnerable to Soviet counterattack. Unknown to the Germans at the time, this would spell out catastrophic failure for their entire operation.
The Soviets began to launch counterattack after counterattack, driving the Germans westward and crushing their dreams of a German-controlled Russia. Even though the Red Army experienced greater losses than the Germans, the inability of the Germans to crush and defeat the Soviets marked the end of Germany's unmatched military dominance in Europe. The German forces were eventually forced out of Russia altogether, and the Red Army proceeded to advance into Germany territory in its march towards Berlin.
Sources:
http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/operation-barbarossa
https://www.britannica.com/event/Operation-Barbarossa
https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005164
In the first months of the campaign, the German armies advanced deep into Soviet territory. In a single week, German forces advanced 200 miles deep into Soviet territory, and by December, Moscow was within their grasp. However, when the notorious Russian winter set in, the German advance came to a halt. German planners expected a Soviet collapse before winter, and thus they failed to provide adequate supplies to the army by the end of the year. Furthermore, the German troops advanced too rapidly and outran their supply lines, leaving their flanks vulnerable to Soviet counterattack. Unknown to the Germans at the time, this would spell out catastrophic failure for their entire operation.
The Soviets began to launch counterattack after counterattack, driving the Germans westward and crushing their dreams of a German-controlled Russia. Even though the Red Army experienced greater losses than the Germans, the inability of the Germans to crush and defeat the Soviets marked the end of Germany's unmatched military dominance in Europe. The German forces were eventually forced out of Russia altogether, and the Red Army proceeded to advance into Germany territory in its march towards Berlin.
Sources:
http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/operation-barbarossa
https://www.britannica.com/event/Operation-Barbarossa
https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005164
Sunday, November 12, 2017
The Fireside Chats
Franklin D. Roosevelt, who took office for the first time in early 1933, would become the only president in American history to be elected four consecutive terms. He would go on to lead the nation through two national crises: the Great Depression and World War II. During his presidency, he greatly expanded the role and power of the federal government through his New Deal policies. From 1933 to 1944, Roosevelt directly addressed the American people via radio, being the first president to take advantage of this brand new technology. Millions of people tuned in to these speeches, eventually becoming known as the "fireside chats."
In 1921, Franklin D. Roosevelt, a young politician from New York, was stricken with polio, completely paralyzing him for a period of time. He remained permanently confined to a wheelchair for the rest of his life, but he didn't give up his dreams of a political career, and in 1928, he was elected governor of New York. Four years later, he won the Democratic nomination for president and went on to win the presidential election with some 23 million popular votes, 7 million more than his Republican counterpart Herbert Hoover.
When Roosevelt took office in March 1933, the Great Depression had leveled the nation's economy, with banks in failure and industrial production crippled. Over 13 million Americans were unemployed, and many voted for him in hopes that we would save the economy and lift the country out of the Depression. In his first inaugural address, Roosevelt declared that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself," hoping to instill upon the public a new sense of confidence in his administration. His first several months as president, famously dubbed "The Hundred Days," Roosevelt and his administration proposed a wide variety of policies to Congress that aimed to jumpstart America's economic recovery.
Roosevelt called on Congress to develop a new banking legislation that would provide aid to the failing financial institutions of America. On March 12, 1933, he delivered an informal address on the banking crisis that was broadcasting over the radio, becoming the first of many to come during his years in office. Roosevelt would go on to give around 30 total radio addresses from 1933 to 1944, and the topics he talked about ranged from economic policies of the New Deal to America's involvement in World War II.
Despite what the name implies, the "fireside chats" were actually conducted behind a microphone-covered desk in the White House. The phrase actually comes from Harry Butcher, a CBS reporter who coined the term in a press release before one of Roosevelt's speeches. The name stuck, as it perfectly described the informal and conversational tone that Roosevelt used during these speeches. In these talks, Roosevelt purposely used the simplest possible language and concrete examples and analogies, making it easy to understand for a large number of Americans. Through depression and war, the reassuring nature of the fireside chats boosted the public's morale and contributed to Roosevelt's unprecedented political success.
Source:
http://www.history.com/topics/fireside-chats
In 1921, Franklin D. Roosevelt, a young politician from New York, was stricken with polio, completely paralyzing him for a period of time. He remained permanently confined to a wheelchair for the rest of his life, but he didn't give up his dreams of a political career, and in 1928, he was elected governor of New York. Four years later, he won the Democratic nomination for president and went on to win the presidential election with some 23 million popular votes, 7 million more than his Republican counterpart Herbert Hoover.
When Roosevelt took office in March 1933, the Great Depression had leveled the nation's economy, with banks in failure and industrial production crippled. Over 13 million Americans were unemployed, and many voted for him in hopes that we would save the economy and lift the country out of the Depression. In his first inaugural address, Roosevelt declared that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself," hoping to instill upon the public a new sense of confidence in his administration. His first several months as president, famously dubbed "The Hundred Days," Roosevelt and his administration proposed a wide variety of policies to Congress that aimed to jumpstart America's economic recovery.
Roosevelt called on Congress to develop a new banking legislation that would provide aid to the failing financial institutions of America. On March 12, 1933, he delivered an informal address on the banking crisis that was broadcasting over the radio, becoming the first of many to come during his years in office. Roosevelt would go on to give around 30 total radio addresses from 1933 to 1944, and the topics he talked about ranged from economic policies of the New Deal to America's involvement in World War II.
Despite what the name implies, the "fireside chats" were actually conducted behind a microphone-covered desk in the White House. The phrase actually comes from Harry Butcher, a CBS reporter who coined the term in a press release before one of Roosevelt's speeches. The name stuck, as it perfectly described the informal and conversational tone that Roosevelt used during these speeches. In these talks, Roosevelt purposely used the simplest possible language and concrete examples and analogies, making it easy to understand for a large number of Americans. Through depression and war, the reassuring nature of the fireside chats boosted the public's morale and contributed to Roosevelt's unprecedented political success.
Source:
http://www.history.com/topics/fireside-chats
Sunday, November 5, 2017
The Emergence of Jazz
When jazz first spread across America in the early twentieth-century, it was very controversial. As its popularity grew, it was criticized many entities, including Henry Ford, the Ladies Home Journal, and the New York Times. However, despite all this criticism, jazz survived.
Jazz eventually evolved from a radical and unacceptable music genre to a great and distinctly American expression of art. Jazz initially faced significant opposition because it was different; it featured a lot of improvisation and originated from African American culture. Underlying racism was a significant factor in jazz's initial opposition, and it was described as "barbaric and immoral." Before jazz became a national interest, many music educators tried to dissuade young people from listening to jazz, telling them that European classical music was the only "good music."
But jazz musicians kept playing. New Orleans became the first center of jazz, with jazz clubs popping up all over the city. Because black musicians were not allowed to play in many traditional establishments, jazz became associated with less reputable venues. However, people still flocked to these clubs to hear these up and coming jazz musicians, and jazz's popularity skyrocketed.
The more popular jazz became, the more campaigns that were started to censor "the devil's music." Early opponents such as Thomas Edison ridiculed jazz, saying that "it sounds better played backwards." By the end of the twenties, over 60 communities passed laws that prohibited jazz in public dance halls.
The Great Migration, during which hundreds of thousands of African Americans fled the South to the industrial cities of the North, greatly expanded the influence of jazz. Musicians from New Orleans and other Southern cities brought jazz with them to the North, leading to Chicago becoming the new center of jazz. The city's South Side was dotted with over 100 clubs, and poet Langston Hughes wrote "midnight was like day," referring to the city's new jazz-filled nightlife.
The passage of the Prohibition in 1920 led to jazz being brought into gangster-run nightclubs, which served both white and black customers. Jazz, which started off as predominately black, was being introduced to white youth of all social standings in these clubs, greatly contributing to jazz's growth during the decade.
Furthermore, jazz recordings allowed the music to spread beyond the city clubs. Radio and recordings of jazz eventually became more popular than the nightclubs, and New York replaced Chicago as the center of jazz during the Harlem Renaissance. The animosity towards jazz eventually dissipated, and it became accepted as the nation's chief cultural expression.
Source:
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/beyond/jazz.html
Jazz eventually evolved from a radical and unacceptable music genre to a great and distinctly American expression of art. Jazz initially faced significant opposition because it was different; it featured a lot of improvisation and originated from African American culture. Underlying racism was a significant factor in jazz's initial opposition, and it was described as "barbaric and immoral." Before jazz became a national interest, many music educators tried to dissuade young people from listening to jazz, telling them that European classical music was the only "good music."
But jazz musicians kept playing. New Orleans became the first center of jazz, with jazz clubs popping up all over the city. Because black musicians were not allowed to play in many traditional establishments, jazz became associated with less reputable venues. However, people still flocked to these clubs to hear these up and coming jazz musicians, and jazz's popularity skyrocketed.
The more popular jazz became, the more campaigns that were started to censor "the devil's music." Early opponents such as Thomas Edison ridiculed jazz, saying that "it sounds better played backwards." By the end of the twenties, over 60 communities passed laws that prohibited jazz in public dance halls.
The Great Migration, during which hundreds of thousands of African Americans fled the South to the industrial cities of the North, greatly expanded the influence of jazz. Musicians from New Orleans and other Southern cities brought jazz with them to the North, leading to Chicago becoming the new center of jazz. The city's South Side was dotted with over 100 clubs, and poet Langston Hughes wrote "midnight was like day," referring to the city's new jazz-filled nightlife.
The passage of the Prohibition in 1920 led to jazz being brought into gangster-run nightclubs, which served both white and black customers. Jazz, which started off as predominately black, was being introduced to white youth of all social standings in these clubs, greatly contributing to jazz's growth during the decade.
Furthermore, jazz recordings allowed the music to spread beyond the city clubs. Radio and recordings of jazz eventually became more popular than the nightclubs, and New York replaced Chicago as the center of jazz during the Harlem Renaissance. The animosity towards jazz eventually dissipated, and it became accepted as the nation's chief cultural expression.
Source:
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/beyond/jazz.html
Wednesday, November 1, 2017
The Prohibition
The passing of the 18th Amendment to the Constitution banned the manufacture, transportation, and sale of "intoxicating liquors," ushering in a period of American History known as the Prohibition. The amendment was the result of a widespread temperance movement dating back to the early 19th century, during which a wave of religious revivalism swept the country. Multiple states had banned the sale of liquor by the start of the Civil War, setting the precedent for later legislation. By the 20th century, the temperance movement had become a significant political movement in American society, strengthened by the role women played in opposing alcohol and tobacco. These were seen as destructive forces in families and marriages, and women were often the hardest hit when their husbands became drunks and addicts. In 1906 the attack against liquor was revitalized, driven by a reaction to urban growth, as well as the rise of evangelical Protestantism that opposed the new way of life in the cities. In addition, many employers supported prohibition because they believed that alcohol was making their workers less productive.
In 1917, after the U.S. joined World War I, president Woodrow Wilson passed a temporary prohibition in order to save grain for wartime food production. Later that same year, Congress submitted the 18th Amendment, which would ban the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcohol nationwide. In just eleven months, the amendment received the necessary support for its passage and was ratified on January 29, 1919. A year later, the amendment went into full effect.
Over the course of the 1920s, both local and federal authorities struggled to enforce the Prohibition. In general, enforcement was much stronger in areas that generally supported the amendment, meaning that the Prohibition was enforced much more strongly in rural areas and small towns than in urban centers. Although there was some initial success, including a decline in arrests for drunkenness and a 30% decrease in alcohol consumption, people eventually found more clever ways to obtain liquor. "Bootlegging," the illegal manufacture and sale of liquor, went on throughout the decade, along with the operation of "speakeasies," which were stores and nightclubs that sold alcohol.
Contrary to its original purpose, the Prohibition ended up encouraging the rise of criminal activity associated with bootlegging. Gangs such as the one run by Al Capone made millions off of bootleg operations and speakeasies, fueling a corresponding rise of gang violence. The most infamous of these events was the St. Valentine's Day Massacre in Chicago, in which several men dressed up as policemen shot and killed various men affiliated with a rival gang.
The higher price of bootleg liquor meant that the working and middle classes were affected by the Prohibition the most. This, coupled with much higher rates of incarceration due to the illegal sale of purchase of alcohol, led to the waning of support for Prohibition by the end of the 1920s. When Franklin D. Roosevelt, who promised to appeal the Prohibition if elected, easily won victory over the incumbent President Herbert Hoover in 1932, he proposed the passing of the 21st Amendment, which would essentially repeal the 18th. The new amendment was finally passed in December 1933, and the decade of Prohibition had finally come to a close.
Source:
http://www.history.com/topics/prohibition
In 1917, after the U.S. joined World War I, president Woodrow Wilson passed a temporary prohibition in order to save grain for wartime food production. Later that same year, Congress submitted the 18th Amendment, which would ban the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcohol nationwide. In just eleven months, the amendment received the necessary support for its passage and was ratified on January 29, 1919. A year later, the amendment went into full effect.
Over the course of the 1920s, both local and federal authorities struggled to enforce the Prohibition. In general, enforcement was much stronger in areas that generally supported the amendment, meaning that the Prohibition was enforced much more strongly in rural areas and small towns than in urban centers. Although there was some initial success, including a decline in arrests for drunkenness and a 30% decrease in alcohol consumption, people eventually found more clever ways to obtain liquor. "Bootlegging," the illegal manufacture and sale of liquor, went on throughout the decade, along with the operation of "speakeasies," which were stores and nightclubs that sold alcohol.
Contrary to its original purpose, the Prohibition ended up encouraging the rise of criminal activity associated with bootlegging. Gangs such as the one run by Al Capone made millions off of bootleg operations and speakeasies, fueling a corresponding rise of gang violence. The most infamous of these events was the St. Valentine's Day Massacre in Chicago, in which several men dressed up as policemen shot and killed various men affiliated with a rival gang.
The higher price of bootleg liquor meant that the working and middle classes were affected by the Prohibition the most. This, coupled with much higher rates of incarceration due to the illegal sale of purchase of alcohol, led to the waning of support for Prohibition by the end of the 1920s. When Franklin D. Roosevelt, who promised to appeal the Prohibition if elected, easily won victory over the incumbent President Herbert Hoover in 1932, he proposed the passing of the 21st Amendment, which would essentially repeal the 18th. The new amendment was finally passed in December 1933, and the decade of Prohibition had finally come to a close.
Source:
http://www.history.com/topics/prohibition
Saturday, October 28, 2017
Woodrow Wilson's Stroke
Woodrow Wilson was under a lot of stress during his presidency, and it definitely showed near the end of his second term. After dealing with WWI and Republican backlash over the League of Nations, Wilson was struggling to pass his reforms. Determined to win the people's support, he embarked on a national speaking tour throughout the United States to directly appeal to the American people. For nearly a month Wilson and his administration traveled from city to city by train, against the insistence by both his wife and his physician to not make the trip. Wilson had already overworked himself to exhaustion during "the Great War," and in early April of 1919 he contracted a severe case of influenza that was running rampant at the time. Thus, many close to him feared that this speaking tour would push him over the edge.
As the presidential train traveled across the Midwest and into the Great Plains states, Wilson's physical symptoms began to worsen. He became thinner and paler, he lost his appetite, his asthma worsened, and he complained of constant migraines. Unfortunately, despite his body telling him to stop, Wilson continued to give speeches and on the evening of Sept. 25, 1919, Wilson suffered a "mini-stroke." Dr. Grayson, his physician, noted that the facial muscles on the left side of his mouth were beginning to drag and loosen, indicating that Wilson was in danger of suffering from a full-fledged stroke. Wilson's condition only continued to deteriorate, and on Sept. 26, his secretary announced that the rest of the speaking tour would be cancelled due to Wilson suffering from "a nervous reaction in his digestive organs." He was quickly rushed back to the White House, where he would be forced to rest and be examined by doctors.
On Oct. 2, 1919, the president suffered a stroke. The stroke left Wilson severely paralyzed on his left side and partially blind in his right eye, along with other psychological disabilities that accompany a stroke. A few weeks later he suffered a urinary tract infection that nearly killed him, but his body was strong enough to survive the infection. Edith Wilson, Woodrow Wilson's wife, realized that her husband was in no condition to run the country and decided to take matters into her own hands. She shielded Woodrow's condition from the public and was essentially the country's chief executive until the end of his term. However she was never able to convince Congress to allow the country to join the League of Nations, which was Woodrow's main objective at the time, and Wilson's dream of a new democratic world order would not come to fruition for many years past his lifetime.
Source:
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/woodrow-wilson-stroke
As the presidential train traveled across the Midwest and into the Great Plains states, Wilson's physical symptoms began to worsen. He became thinner and paler, he lost his appetite, his asthma worsened, and he complained of constant migraines. Unfortunately, despite his body telling him to stop, Wilson continued to give speeches and on the evening of Sept. 25, 1919, Wilson suffered a "mini-stroke." Dr. Grayson, his physician, noted that the facial muscles on the left side of his mouth were beginning to drag and loosen, indicating that Wilson was in danger of suffering from a full-fledged stroke. Wilson's condition only continued to deteriorate, and on Sept. 26, his secretary announced that the rest of the speaking tour would be cancelled due to Wilson suffering from "a nervous reaction in his digestive organs." He was quickly rushed back to the White House, where he would be forced to rest and be examined by doctors.
On Oct. 2, 1919, the president suffered a stroke. The stroke left Wilson severely paralyzed on his left side and partially blind in his right eye, along with other psychological disabilities that accompany a stroke. A few weeks later he suffered a urinary tract infection that nearly killed him, but his body was strong enough to survive the infection. Edith Wilson, Woodrow Wilson's wife, realized that her husband was in no condition to run the country and decided to take matters into her own hands. She shielded Woodrow's condition from the public and was essentially the country's chief executive until the end of his term. However she was never able to convince Congress to allow the country to join the League of Nations, which was Woodrow's main objective at the time, and Wilson's dream of a new democratic world order would not come to fruition for many years past his lifetime.
Source:
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/woodrow-wilson-stroke
Sunday, October 22, 2017
Theodore Roosevelt and the Russo-Japanese War
The Treaty of Portsmouth, signed in September of 1905, ended the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. The negotiations were brokered by Theodore Roosevelt and the U.S. government, and the treaty affirmed Japanese presence in south Manchuria and Korea and ceded the southern half of the island of Sakhalin to Japan. Although the war itself did not have much international significance, the brokering of peace by the U.S. signaled its emergence as a world power. This marked a significant change in American foreign policy: the U.S. would change from isolationist into a global power.
By the time of the treaty, Russia and Japan disputed for years over control of Manchuria. War began in 1904, when the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur, Manchuria. The two countries continued to clash in Korea and the Sea of Japan, resulting in Japan winning various close victories. However war casualties were high on both sides, and by 1905 both Russia and China were seeking an end to the war. The Japanese asked President Roosevelt to negotiate a peace agreement, and it was decided that the representatives of the two sides would meet at Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
In order to maintain a balance of power in Asia, Roosevelt hoped that the treaty would leave Russia and Japan on equal footing. Although he acknowledged Japan's new increase of power, Roosevelt feared the consequences to American interests if Japan completely drove out Russia. As a result, Russian influence was curtailed in the region, but they were not required to pay for Japan's war costs. Japan wanted more from Russia, but they too were struggling economically, forcing them to accept the terms of the treaty.
The Treaty of Portsmouth marked the final cooperative event between the U.S. and Japan that started with the Meiji Restoration in 1868. From this point onwards, competition between the two nations would continue to grow as the U.S. struggled to compete for power in Asia. Nonetheless, Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in moderating the negotiation and pushing toward peace.
Source
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/portsmouth-treaty
By the time of the treaty, Russia and Japan disputed for years over control of Manchuria. War began in 1904, when the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur, Manchuria. The two countries continued to clash in Korea and the Sea of Japan, resulting in Japan winning various close victories. However war casualties were high on both sides, and by 1905 both Russia and China were seeking an end to the war. The Japanese asked President Roosevelt to negotiate a peace agreement, and it was decided that the representatives of the two sides would meet at Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
In order to maintain a balance of power in Asia, Roosevelt hoped that the treaty would leave Russia and Japan on equal footing. Although he acknowledged Japan's new increase of power, Roosevelt feared the consequences to American interests if Japan completely drove out Russia. As a result, Russian influence was curtailed in the region, but they were not required to pay for Japan's war costs. Japan wanted more from Russia, but they too were struggling economically, forcing them to accept the terms of the treaty.
The Treaty of Portsmouth marked the final cooperative event between the U.S. and Japan that started with the Meiji Restoration in 1868. From this point onwards, competition between the two nations would continue to grow as the U.S. struggled to compete for power in Asia. Nonetheless, Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in moderating the negotiation and pushing toward peace.
Source
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/portsmouth-treaty
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