Calvin Coolidge: when doing "nothing" led to something

      Typically when characterizing Calvin Coolidge's time in office, people often regard him as the president that succeeded Harding after his sudden death, and did "nothing." After all, he was dubbed the nickname "Silent Cal" because of his quiet, passive, yet steadfast character while in office. While he is also commonly blamed for the economic problems leading up to the Great Depression, his positive legacy was very subtle, and involved bridging the gap for the United States to enter the modern era. 

      One of the most significant impacts of his presidency was his influence in economics. Having a background and belief in the Austrian school of economics, he saw the government as a public enemy that destroyed prosperity and initiative in the individuals. While many Americans at the time, and even to this day, believed that government intervention was a positive, his laissez-faire policies, on paper, actually benefited the American economy greatly. He favored less government intervention and spending, and advocated for tax cuts, which reduced American debt by a third, tax rates in half, and destroyed most of unemployment. 

      On top of his success in his economic policies, he also led America through the era of fast-paced change known as The Roaring Twenties. Women's rights evolved with the flapper and Constitutional rights, and more and more people delved into consumer culture with automobiles and mass produced goods. Coolidge acted as a "father figure" during this time period, and gave the American public a "comforting symbol of old-fashioned responsibility and virtue." 

      Thus, while being a less popular president, widely regarded as a weaker and less significant president, Coolidge served a unique and necessary purpose in American history. Even though he led the nation passively, he was still the bridge to modern America, and even made significant, positive economic impacts on America. He may have been unsuccessful from a Keynesian perspective, looking towards successful government intervention in economics, but when evaluated on his own beliefs and standards, on the other hand, Coolidge was incredibly successful, and succeeded in withholding government intervention, and reducing the power of government through tax cuts. 

Works Cited

https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/calvin-coolidge

https://millercenter.org/president/coolidge/impact-and-legacy

https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21572176-americas-30th-president-has-been-much-misunderstood-when-less-led-more

World War 2 Rationing and the Oscars

              

Starting as early as January of 1940, nation-wide rationing was implemented as part of the war effort. Whether it was preserving food, regulating gasoline, or recycling and donating metal, civilians were able to contribute to the war from the Home Front. However, these rations had notable effects on citizens, and even influenced the renown Oscar Awards Ceremony.

Government rationing plans developed plans for recycling due to the resource shortages, and an important material to be recycled for the war was metal. There was a vast shortage of metal across the country, but recycling aluminum cans could result in more ammunition for the Allied soldiers, which influenced many Americans in their decisions to preserve the resource. Tanks, ships, planes, weapons, ammunition, and helmets all required metal to manufacture, so the wartime necessity took precedence over civilian products, implementing the saved metal in production. As a result, civilians were very limited in the metal they were allotted to use, and thus had to take care of what the owned, or simply had to learn to do without it.

Americans were also urged to contribute scrap metal for recycling, which eventually developed into scrap metal drives. Civilians were encouraged to turn in anything from chicken wire to typewriters, all in hopes to aid the Allies, and speed up the victory. Celebrities such as Rita Hayworth (depicted above) promoted these efforts as well as the purchasing of war bonds, and actively turned in inessential car parts for recycling. Extremes of the metal shortage included the halt in production of beauty products, alarm clocks, and even sliced bread. In the case of sliced bread, the blades used to cut bread were instead conserved for the war effort, but the public uproar led to its repeal after two months.

The rationing, however, also had interesting effects on entertainment. The annual Academy Awards still went on during the war, but the ceremony was to follow American nationalism for the recycling of metal. The previously $90 gold-plated solid bronze statuette was replaced with a $12 plaster rendition of the same size due to the lack of available and usable metal.  During the wartime metal shortage, these plaster Oscars were awarded at the 1943, 1944, and 1945 ceremonies, but could be later traded in for their metal counterparts after the war had ended.

As seen through the cheaper statuettes awarded to prominent actors at the time, it is evident that the effects of World War 2 rationing were widespread. The war effort was universal, and every last scrap of metal was saved to gain any edge over adversity in the worldwide war. From efforts as nominal as blades used to slice bread, every ounce of effort was implemented to speed up the cease of war.

Sources:

http://www.sarahsundin.com/make-it-do-metal-shortages-during-world-war-ii/

https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/during-wwii-the-only-men-getting-plastered-for-oscar-night-were-the-statuettes

http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/ww2-rationing/5927

http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1674.html

World War 2 Propaganda is Why You Think Carrots Help Your Eyes

            

Now although there is some science backing the verity of Vitamin A in carrots being good for maintaining your eyes, World War 2 propaganda took the study to a whole other level. Wartime efforts twisted the idea into a myth that carrots improved eyesight, and could even help consumers see in the dark. From Blitzkriegs to radio wave technology, the propaganda was used as a way to trick the Germans, and hide the newfound technology of radars in combat. 

In light of the Blitzkriegs from German forces, British cities often issued citywide blackouts, which would make it near impossible for the German planes to hit their targets. However, the Allies soon caught on to aerial warfare, and even developed a new radar technology to help strike in the dark: the on-board Airborne Interception Radar. The technology allowed the Allies to target and pinpoint incoming Blitzkrieg bombers in the dark, and a night fighter, known as John Cunningham, was able use the technology to rack up 19 kills in the darkness of night. However, the Ministry of Food credited the pilot's success to his consumption of carrots, rather than the lethal technology. The Ministry even went as far as to spread pamphlets dictating that carrots would help the British civilians see during the citywide blackouts.

The propaganda was for a multitude of reasons. First, the success of the radar technology was a huge advantage in the war, and was undeveloped by the German forces. Of course, the British wanted to retain the edge over their enemy, and thus set out to trick the Germans. The media attempted to show how instead of a technological advancement, it was rather the superior British night vision from carrots that resulted in success.

However, the propaganda backfired, and German intelligence services became aware of the ground-based radar installations, and cross applied the same logic to planes. This resulted in German researchers discovering the first radar predecessors, which lead to the German development of the technology as well. However, the plan arguably backfired because the British public was tricked instead, and believed that the consumption of carrots would help them see better in the citywide blackouts.

But is the myth all false? The Vitamin A content in carrots is necessary for the maintenance of the cornea, but the effect is non-unique to carrots. Nonetheless, not getting enough Vitamin A does significantly more bad than a surplus can do good, so it is still a good idea to eat carrots, even if some reasoning derives from lofty propaganda. 

Sources:

http://www.businessinsider.com/carrots-vitamin-a-night-vision-myth-ww2-2016-4

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/a-wwii-propaganda-campaign-popularized-the-myth-that-carrots-help-you-see-in-the-dark-28812484/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2014/12/15/no-carrots-dont-make-your-eyesight-better/?utm_term=.9ca2cf59fcdf

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-carrots-improve-your-vision/

The Siege of Leningrad

Just when you thought death tolls from the war were staggering, the Siege of Leningrad resulted in more Russian deaths than American and British soldiers combined in all of WWII. The nearly 900 day siege of the city of Leningrad resulted in the death of over 1 million Russian civilians. However, despite grueling hunger with daily rations of two thin slices of bread, and over a million falling to the German blockade, the city never surrendered.

The Siege began on September 8th, 1941 as soon as the World War came to Russia. However, in a tactical decision to save valuable resources, Hitler decided to bypass Leningrad, and rush the blitzkrieg toward Moscow. However, this meant the beginning of one of the longest and most costly sieges in war history, as German troops completed their encirclement of the city. The Germans had plans to "wipe Leningrad from the face of the earth through demolitions," but this would only be possible after the city surrendered. A condition that would never be met. 

Hunger and cold took its toll on the Russian inhabitants, as Germans severed all roads supplying the city, and tossed bombs toward the city in hopes of preventing supplies from reaching the civilians. Sparse supplies were barged into the city by truck and sled, and fed the starving population meager rations, leaving the two million remaining citizens barely surviving. However, their perseverance and years spent in misery paid off in early 1943, as Soviet offenses broke the German encirclement, and replenished the city's supplies once more. Nearly three years after the beginning of the siege, a final push from the Soviets drove the Germans westward, ultimately ending the lethal siege. 

After the German's unconditional surrender in 1945, the city of Leningrad was awarded with the first title Hero City of the Soviet Union. The inhabitants' unwavering endurance through the most lethal siege in war history was celebrated, and were recognized as true heroes of the war. The sacrifice and suffering that the civilians endured for the duration of the siege proved to influence the outcome of the war, inspiring the Soviet war effort as a whole, and displaying heroism for the world to see. 

Sources: 

http://www.saint-petersburg.com/history/great-patriotic-war-and-siege-of-leningrad/

http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/leningrad.htm

http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/siege-of-leningrad

https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Leningrad

How Liberty Sausage and Propaganda Changed America's Food Forever

                  

Starting most prominently in World War I with the infamous "liberty cabbage," wartime food propaganda completely altered the way Americans ate food. Whether it be changing the names of food, or even changing the ways Americans ate food, war propaganda created a brand new dinner table for the average American household.

Fueled with anti-German sentiment throughout the duration of the first World War, Americans began persecuting German-Americans, eliminating any and all hints of the hated war enemy. In hopes of countering the steep decline in sauerkraut consumption after the war, the Federal Food Administration received a petition to change the German side dish to "liberty cabbage." Other German or German-sounding names such as hamburgers, dachshunds, and German measles were changed to liberty steaks, liberty pups, and liberty measles respectively. This gave rise to the modern term of "hot dogs," which was previously referred to as frankfurters. Bitter anti-German sentiment and wartime propaganda caused Americans to distance themselves from Germany in all aspects, creating the common food names we see in our world today.

Fast forward to World War II, the rationing policy and new-found prosperity among the American working class changed the types of food eaten, as well as the way it was distributed. Previously poor American families were able to buy goods that were previously out of their reach, which fueled the culture of consumerism in America. This is for a multitude of reasons.

First, the rationing and limited resources of the war caused people to scramble and stock food, giving rise to the usage of preserved or canned food. Despite nationwide ration policies and wartime food shortages, the processed food industry allowed for little change in the American diet, because Americans were able to prepare for hunger by stocking upon food beforehand.

Second, as seen in the propaganda poster above, the government prodded the consumption of foods with high energy content. This idea directly translated to the increased consumption of red meat, as each American ate 2.5 pounds of red meat in a week on average, whereas British workers had to get by with less than half of that amount. The previously "high class" meal was now accessible to all Americans, which continued consumerism after the war ended, as all people wanted to enjoy those same luxuries. However, on a side note, this created a new black market for food, as Americans became increasingly picky on the type of meat they consumed. The demand for meat caused butchers and slaughterhouses to spring up, bypassing inspectors, and selling meat illegally. Now how does this translate to the consumer culture in America?

The widespread consumption and demand of more "high class" food such as beef, coupled with the government's encouragement to continue the culture of preserving and stocking up food even after the war, created a new image of the working man. People were able to improve their conditions and demand consumables, which would come full circle by fueling productivity and keeping men in jobs. Thus, that Thanksgiving turkey you ate last week can be seen as a product of the World Wars: buying surplus food, economic equality, and consumer culture.

Sources:

https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/04/03/wwii-food-america_n_1398132.html

http://knowledgenuts.com/2014/07/02/hot-dog-and-many-other-names-came-from-anti-german-sentiment/

https://www.historyonthenet.com/authentichistory/1914-1920/2-homefront/4-hysteria/

https://thetakeout.com/how-wwi-food-propaganda-forever-changed-the-way-america-1798259481

Scottsboro Case

The "Scottsboro Boys" trial was the only trial in American history that resulted in so many trials, convictions, reversals, and mistrials. Not to mention, the crime that was tried never even occurred. Building off the previous tensions of the Jim Crow Era, the case involving nine falsely accused African American men would change the course of racism in the United States for eternity.

The nine unemployed black men, known as the Scottsboro Boys, were taken off a freight train for illegally riding in Scotssboro Alabama. Local police decided to elevate their minor charge by pulling two white women, pressuring them into accusing the boys of raping them. Deriving from the publicized lynchings of the Jim Crow Era, African Americans convicted of raping white women faced no mercy. Within two weeks of the accusation, eight of nine men were sentenced to death by an all-white jury, and the latter faced lifetime imprisonment because of his young age. 

However, the Communist-dominated International Labor Defense rallied public support for the Scottsboro Boys. The group focused on fighting economic exploitation as well as racism, and immediately took on the case. After the conviction of the nine men, the American Communist Party and the ILD engaged in a nation wide protest campaign in efforts to overturn the decision, and in general advocated against discrimination in America. The parties were eventually joined by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, fueling the efforts for the end of racism.

The campaign gained so much support and influence that one of the women accusing the Scottsboro Boys eventually came forward and testified that they were pressured into falsely accusing the men, and even joined the support for the veto of the court decision. The case eventually went to Supreme Court, and the lives of the nine accused men were spared. The event marked a significant dent in the Jim Crow legal system, and the united effort towards the end of racism. 

The specific cases that derived from the event included Powell v. Alabama, which determined that the men did not have their right due process because they were sentenced to death before being represented by a lawyer. Furthermore, Norris v. Alabama allowed for African Americans to be included in jury pools due to the right to fair trial and equal representation. 

Sources:

https://www.aclu.org/other/aclu-history-scottsboro-boys

https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/eras/great-depression/scottsboro-boys-trial-defense-campaign-1931-1937/

http://famous-trials.com/scottsboroboys

Teapot Dome Scandal

      Warren G. Harding, the twenty-ninth president of the United States, is commonly referenced when discussing the causes leading up to the Great Depression. Except instead of his positive influence on the US, he is commonly attributed with the scandals that he partook in during his time in office; most notably, the Teapot Dome Scandal. This scandal of the 1920s demonstrated the immense corruption that plagued the government, and was an act of bribery and greed.

      The unique name of the scandal was derived from an oil reserve in Wyoming that resembled a teapot, hence the name: Teapot Dome. The oil reserve along with other reserves in California were set aside by the U.S. Navy to ensure that there was always enough oil to power ships under an emergency. However, when President Harding came into office, he allowed his Senator, Albert Fall, to transfer supervision from the Navy to an oil company and a petroleum company. The owners of the respective companies bribed Albert Fall to authorize the drilling of these naval reserves, which ended up containing oil valued at hundreds of millions of dollars. Suspicion arose when trucks were seen at the site, and investigation began on the dealings.

      Fall was eventually tried for accepting bribes from the oil and petroleum companies, and was sentenced to federal prison, being the first American Cabinet officer to be incarcerated during service. Congress had President Harding cancel the leases and determined them fraudulent, but Harding suffered a stroke and died before his punishment was determined. The leases were then brought to federal court, and although Wyoming ruled in favor of the state, the U.S. Supreme Court vetoed their decision, canceling the leases to Teapot Dome.

      The Teapot Dome stayed under federal control, and was eventually put into use during the Energy Crisis in 1970s. Centuries after, in January 2015, the Teapot Dome was finally sold again, but this time legally to the Stranded Oil Resources Corporation.

      However, as a result of this Teapot Dome scandal, the phrase "Teapot Dome" became a sort of propaganda or political vocabulary synonymous with the governmental corruption under the administration of President Harding. It has also been attributed with the power and control the oil companies had in American politics, ultimately causing some form of corruption among the government.

Sources:

https://www.britannica.com/event/Teapot-Dome-Scandal

http://www.history.com/topics/teapot-dome-scandal

https://www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/teapot-dome-scandal

Why does the American form of government work?

Federalist Papers: No. 10

No man is allowed to be a judge in his own cause, because his interest would certainly bias his judgment, and, not improbably, corrupt his integrity. With equal, nay with greater reason, a body of men are unfit to be both judges and parties at the same time; yet what are many of the most important acts of legislation, but so many judicial determinations, not indeed concerning the rights of single persons, but concerning the rights of large bodies of citizens? And what are the different classes of legislators but advocates and parties to the causes which they determine? Is a law proposed concerning private debts? It is a question to which the creditors are parties on one side and the debtors on the other. Justice ought to hold the balance between them.

Madison argues that America's decisions and power should not be vested in a single individual, but rather should be for the general good of people. If a single man were to represent a nation, Madison believes that "his interest would surely bias his judgement," so it can be inferred that he is calling upon a large, diverse group of representatives in order for a government to work. Because the laws passed by the government are not pertaining to a single individual, but rather a unified country, it should be according to the general will of the public, which cannot be derived from a single man in power.

Federalist Papers: No. 10

By enlarging too much the number of electors, you render the representatives too little acquainted with all their local circumstances and lesser interests; as by reducing it too much, you render him unduly attached to these, and too little fit to comprehend and pursue great and national objects. The federal Constitution forms a happy combination in this respect; the great and aggregate interests being referred to the national, the local and particular to the State legislatures.

In this excerpt, Madison is describing the separation in the roles of the states and national government. With larger and smaller representatives, minorities are able to be represented, and the majority will not be able to abuse power. The separate representatives allow for the general will and universal consensus to be heard, pushing for an overall greater American nation.

Federalist Papers: No. 51

"TO WHAT expedient, then, shall we finally resort, for maintaining in practice the necessary partition of power among the several departments, as laid down in the Constitution? The only answer that can be given is, that as all these exterior provisions are found to be inadequate, the defect must be supplied, by so contriving the interior structure of the government as that its several constituent parts may, by their mutual relations, be the means of keeping each other in their proper places. Without presuming to undertake a full development of this important idea, I will hazard a few general observations, which may perhaps place it in a clearer light, and enable us to form a more correct judgment of the principles and structure of the government planned by the convention."

In this passage, Madison introduces the ideas of separation of powers through the use of checks and balances as a component of a functioning American government. He explains the idea of checks and balances by arguing that the government's individual branches should have the right of "keeping each other in their proper places," ensuring that there is an even distribution of power in the government. Madison advocates for this practice of checks and balances because he deems it as the way to "maintain in practice the necessary partition of power among the several departments," protecting a single branch from tyranny.

Federalist Papers: No. 51

"Justice is the end of government. It is the end of civil society. It ever has been and ever will be pursued until it be obtained, or until liberty be lost in the pursuit. In a society under the forms of which the stronger faction can readily unite and oppress the weaker, anarchy may as truly be said to reign as in a state of nature, where the weaker individual is not secured against the violence of the stronger; and as, in the latter state, even the stronger individuals are prompted, by the uncertainty of their condition, to submit to a government which may protect the weak as well as themselves;"

The passage essentially answers the overarching question directly, declaring that justice and fairness is what keeps the American government running. All the principles of separation of power, checks and balances, etc., all derive from the general national desire for justice. The practices all allow for the American people's ideas to be heard, and Madison claims that it should always "be pursued until it be obtained." If the people are represented in justice, they will be inclined the support the government, allowing the government and its governed working in harmony.