Scientific Management in MY Household

In the early 1900s, the American economy was booming and efficiency was at an all time high. This was due in part to the incredible mechanization about industry and the theory of “scientific management”. Developed by engineer Frederick “Speedy” Taylor, his theory helped to drive prosperity and the creation of mass production. His words would go on to inspire entrepreneurs such as Henry Ford, who transformed the automobile industry with the assembly line.

Originally, Taylor’s ideas were directed towards industrial production and improving the economy. However, he also had a great impact on American government. Modified techniques were applied beyond the factory to offices and servicing stations in order to maximize efficiency. In fact, Herbert Hoover was greatly influenced by Taylor. Known as an “economic mastermind”, Hoover used his administration to gather exact information and wage “war” on wasteful practices.

In the domestic sphere, Taylor’s ideas had applications to the home. Renamed the “science of household management”, it served to help women reduce the amount of time spent on housework and menial tasks. It arose partially in response to the “servant problem” and the dissatisfaction many middle class women felt. Christine Frederick, an editor of the Ladies’ Home Journal, helped to popularize these ideas. In 1912, she published an article on the “efficiency gospel”, where she uses terms such as “inventions”, “standardized operations”, and “scheduling” to convey the idea that mechanization and organization were key to efficient housekeeping.  Frederick also uses personal anecdote, and pushes early feminism by saying that men are responsible for helping women with managing the household. Clearly, Taylor’s ideas were used to remedy perceived discontents all over American society. Frederick would go on to write numerous books and pamphlets on Taylorism in the household.

In education, scientific management was used to standardize school schedules and maximize use of classroom space. In order to do this, school administrations often treated students like workers. They created rigid schedules, strict tests, and focused on task delivery rather than critical thinking and true understanding. In fact, this is how class “periods” originated- they were designed to help minimize the time “wasted” on each subject and create maximum efficiency for learning. One tradition of Taylorism in education that continues is standardized testing, which forces students to only understand concepts superficially and forces teachers to design unrewarding curriculums based on these tests. It remains to be seen whether or not this is minimizing the “waste” in schools.

Taylor would not go without backlash. His “efficiency revolution” would be opposed by many labor groups, who viewed the changes as threatening to their work and wages. Many workers thought that scientific management made their work monotonous and meaningless, and subjected them to harsh working conditions. Today, there are many critics of standardized testing and the harsh rules we subjects kids to. While scientific management has transformed the American economy and made America into the industrial powerhouse it is today, it has touched every other aspect in American society in ways that may not be as positive.

Sources

• http://lcweb2.loc.gov:8081/ammem/amrlhtml/intaylor.html
• http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/4990/
• http://www.radicalpedagogy.org/radicalpedagogy/Frederick_Taylor_In_The_Classroom__Standardized_Testing_And_Scientific_Management.html

A Useless Ditch?

Before the Erie Canal was constructed, New York was largely unconnected by water. Goods all had to be transported by land through slow and arduous means. In the early 19th century, America underwent a period of industrialization, which manifested itself through the development of steam engines and interchangeable parts. Now, steam boats could easily be used to transport goods by water. But how could New York utilize this new technology to increase prosperity? Governor deWitt Clinton thought that New York should develop a great canal that would connect the Hudson River with the Great Lakes, thereby also connecting Albany and Buffalo. Though many criticized the project and labeled it as “Clinton’s Ditch”, he persevered and started construction in 1817. After eight long years, the Erie Canal finally opened up in 1825.

The Erie Canal greatly increased America’s ability to engage in interstate commerce. Different trades, including logging, mining, and manufacturing work could exchange products and money beyond their town or city. The geographic barrier of the Appalachian Mountains had made it very difficult for Western settlers to sell their items before, but the Erie Canal resolved that obstacle. Its influence on trade and settlement also helped to facilitate the flow of new ideas. For example, many social reformers shared ideas on abolitionism, women suffrage, and utopianism around the canal’s corridors. Because the Erie Canal was a great economic center and connected many different types of people, it helped to spread new ideas and also became a cultural center. For many middle-class Americans, the Canal also became a way to travel quickly. Instead of travelling in stagecoaches and wagons, individuals could now secure passage on a steamboat and get across New York in half the time.

The Erie Canal also represented the one of the best engineering feats of the time. It included 18 aqueducts, 83 ducts, and a slope of 568 feet. It was 4 feet deep, 40 feet wide, and could float 30 tons of freight. It also had a pathway on the side that would be used for horses and mules, to easily transport goods off the water. This marvel became a central element of our national identity, representing Americans’ ability to work hard and achieve great goals.

Without the Erie Canal, New York would not be the great financial capital we know it to be today. Even though originally, many thought that it was a futile and wasteful project, the Erie Canal has proved itself to be great representation of American economic might. Throughout the years, the Erie Canal has been expanded more and more to help the transportation of more and more bulk goods. The Erie Canal has also inspired the creation of many more branching canal systems across the country, thereby increasing its impact even more. Today, it is able to carry 3000 tons of cargo and stands 14 feet deep and 200 feet wide. Although trains would come to dominate the Second Industrial Revolution and reduce traffic on the Erie Canal, the Erie Canal has an undoubtedly great effect on American commerce and heritage. In 2016, it was named a National Historic Landmark for its great influence, and is often used by recreational boats for excited tourists.

Sources

• https://www.nps.gov/erie/learn/historyculture/index.htm
• http://www.eriecanal.org/
• https://eriecanalway.org/learn/history-culture

Transcendentalism

In the first half of the 1800s, American artistic expression was dominated by the Transcendentalism movement. Originally inspired by German Enlightenment philosophers like Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Immanuel Kant, Transcendentalism took ideas from mysticism and Romanticism. Other forerunners of the intellectual movement in America took inspiration from the spiritual landscape painting of German romantics. Transcendentalism was a mode of thought that focused on, in the words of Kant, “not with objects but with out mode of knowing objects”. In America, this started in Massachusetts and took on the form of a belief in the inherent goodness of men and nature. Transcendentalists believed that society and its political individuals corrupted this purity. As such, they preached independence and a withdrawal from society until individuals were enlightened enough of this. For example, Henry David Thoreau, a writer of the time, submersed himself in nature for two years and isolated himself from others. This experience would go on to be recorded in his book Walden and become documented as a spiritual quest.

Transcendentalism was a response to the tensions in American society of that time. Many artists and writers critiqued American society for being too reliant on God and becoming to conforming in their thinking. They practiced religious skepticism and believed more in a Deistic figurehead. Transcendentalists, like Ralph Waldo Emerson, also wished for each individual to find “an original relation to the universe”. Just like Thoreau, Emerson also sought isolation in nature. They believed that in doing so, they would be able to develop an individual connection with nature, uncorrupted by the institutions of society. Originally a way to critique uniformity in Americans’ thinking, gradually, transcendentalists grew to critique American society as a whole, especially of their relation to slavery. Many transcendentalists were against slavery because of its immorality and how it dehumanized slaves and treated them as inhuman. In fact, Thoreau, an outspoken abolitionist, would refuse to pay his poll tax during the Mexican War because he did not want his money to go into acquiring territory that could potentially be used to expand slavery.  Clearly, many American transcendentalists were concerned with the morality of their society and how freedom worked.

One way that Transcendentalism manifested itself in American culture was through poetry. Transcendentalist poets believed that the source of their writing should come from their intuition and own spirit, and not from empirical facts. As such, transcendentalist poetry was more expressive and understanding than other previous types. Their writing reflected their belief that all individuals are connected to the universe, and drew connections between moods and weather or landscapes. Because of a non-conformity focus, all transcendentalist poetry is unique and individualistic. Additionally, the beauty of nature provided the subject material of many of these poets. This would inspire them to go on to fight to establish national parks and protected areas.

Sources

• http://hrs-art.com/hudson-river-school-influences/transcendentalism/
• https://public.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/amtrans.htm
• http://www.annhuang.com/blog/2016/06/22/5-things-to-know-about-transcendentalist-poetry/

Pop Art

The 50’s were a time of continued American economic growth following World War II. Although many remained constrained by their fear of the Cold War, many Americans also achieved unprecedented levels of success and security. Many families moved out of the cities into the suburbs and their cookie cutter houses, and manufacturing industries were at an all time high. This inspired a culture of consumerism, where in many people’s eyes, status was all based on what you had better than your neighbor. This, in turn, would inspire a movement among the artists: pop art.

Developed in the mid-50’s and rooted in the Dada movement, pop art was art that responded to trends in everyday life. Artists took inspiration from the conflict with the Soviet Union, consumerism, and the beginnings of the counterculture that would take hold during the 60’s. Many artists directly used materials and images from mass goods and media. For example, Andy Warhol’s famous prints include depictions of Marilyn Monroe, Campbell’s soup cans, and dollar signs. Artistic style was mostly characterized by realism with bold colors and using printmaking to produce multiple copies of their artwork. This was a reflection of the commercialism of the time, and how mass production was so easy to do that artistic originality was basically dead. Many artists began to use different types of mixed media in order to better connect history, culture, and art with each other.

Pop art first displayed in New York, and really took off during the 60’s in Los Angeles. Pop art was not limited to just America, many British artists took the style as well and began producing artworks in the same vein. However, American pop art tended to be more disillusioned with the incessant marketing of society, and tones tended to be more dramatic. As an example, Roy Lichtenstein, an American artist, had a style that was heavily influenced by comic books, which were a popular form of mass production of the time. Since Britain was still recovering from World War II at the time, their society tended to be less commercialized, as did their art.  

Pop art did not necessarily criticize popular culture, it merely explored and took from it. In previous decades, American art had been heavily influenced by nature and religion, like the Transcendentalism of Henry David Thoreau. In the 50’s, however, mass media made it so that American artists were more exposed to it. Pop art reflected the mass population’s own feelings, and was less avant garde in the way that a wider audience was already more connected to it. Clearly, the pop art movement was a response to the culture that had developed during the 50’s.

Sources

• https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/themes/pop-art
• http://www.poparthistory.com/american.html
• https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/movement/pop-art

First Ladies

First Lady of the United States: the wife of the current president of the United States. Although seemingly a trivial title, many first ladies have worked behind the scenes and wielded power in their own right. They have worked with their husband’s achievements and used their influence to break glass ceilings and inspire change all over the world. Some well-known first ladies include Dolley Madison, Edith Wilson, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Hillary Clinton.

Dolley Madison, wife of James Madison, was the most important woman in America at the time. Her excellent social graces and political acumen proved to be a valuable asset for her husband, who would ask her to help him smooth over political quarrels and host balls, envoys, and diplomats from all over the world. It was her who would establish the public role of the first lady and create a standard for how first ladies should act. She was the first to create public projects; for example, she fundraised and founded a home for young orphaned girls in Washington, D.C. She was a great patriot, and when the White House was burned down in 1812, she famously refused to leave until George Washington’s portrait was saved. Clearly, Dolley Madison helped to develop the role of the First Lady and increased the sphere of influence women in the White House wielded. She would remain a notable social figure in the public sphere until her death.

When President Woodrow Wilson suffered through a serious stroke in the midst of war, Edith Wilson would be the one who took the reins on his presidency- so much so, in fact, that she would be labeled as the “Secret President”. To protect Wilson’s health, Edith essentially took over the small duties and technicalities of the executive branch. She selected only the most important matters for Wilson to see; everything else was simply dealt by others or herself. When Wilson was the most sick, Edith would even forbid certain advisors and political figures from seeing him. When Wilson did have political meetings, Edith would frequently be found by his side, taking verbatim notes. Although the Wilsons would leave the White House in 1921, Edith continued to take control over Wilson’s health and screened all activities and visitors he had until his death. Edith’s control over the presidency and her husband’s health proved to be remarkably beneficial to him, as the country undoubtedly might have fallen into shambles without her help at the time.

Considered to be one of the greatest first ladies of all time, Eleanor Roosevelt was a greatly influential figure in her own right and also served during war. Just like Dolley Madison, she understood the social role that a First Lady must fulfill and had great political acumen. She also used her influence to help advance certain social justice causes. For example, she frequently campaigned for the New Deal, civil rights proposals, and women’s rights. She was an integral leader of the United Nations after World War II and worked tirelessly to help protect human rights and equal opportunities. Even after Roosevelt’s death, Eleanor would continue to serve society and was on the board of directors for the NAACP. Eleanor Roosevelt was just as influential as her husband and always stood up for causes she believed in.

Hillary Clinton, is, as we all know, the first former First Lady to secure a presidential nomination. She was just as active as her husband Bill Clinton in the political world. Famously, she was even given the role of directing healthcare reform. Although her politics may not be well liked, similar to Eleanor Roosevelt, she did frequently advocate for women’s rights and supported key pieces of legislation for them. After she left the White House, she would go on to serve as a senator for her home state of New York. After losing the presidential nomination in 2008 to Barack Obama, she would go on to become his Secretary of State. Today, everyone knows of Hillary Clinton and the great influence she has wielded in our national affairs for over a decade.

It appears that the role of the First Lady is not simply just a “wife” of the president. Many First Ladies in American History have proved to be enormously powerful and influential- whether it’s socially or politically- and a valuable partner to our presidents.

Sources

• “First Ladies.” The White House, The United States Government, www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/first-ladies/.
• “First Ladies Research.” First Ladies of the United States, www.firstladies.org/biographies/.
• Kelly, Martin. "The 10 Most Influential First Ladies." ThoughtCo, Apr. 12, 2018, thoughtco.com/top-most-influential-first-ladies-105458.

Times Up! You've Been Impeached!

In today’s day and age, sexual assault accusations are horrifyingly normalized. With the rise of the #MeToo and #TimesUp Movement, it’s no surprise that sexual harassment is at the forefront of everyone’s mind. It seems like not a day goes by without new accounts unveiling the truth about many of the most loved members of society- including politicians. During President Clinton’s second term, numerous scandals arose about him and his wife, including shady real estate deals, fundraising violations, and claims of sexual harassment. As a result of an investigation, the Republican-led Congress moved forward with impeachment proceedings in 1998.

Impeachment is a process that starts first with the House of Representatives, and any member can move to launch an impeachment proceeding. After that, the speaker of the House decides whether or not to move with the proceeding. If he or she does approve the motion, then a House Judiciary Committee is assigned to investigate. After their investigation is concluded, a public hearing is scheduled for the House to vote on the articles of impeachment. However, during the investigation, a president can continue his position. In the case of Bill Clinton, he continued to serve until the end of his term in 2000 even though the impeachment process had started in 1988. Although he was impeached by the House, he was acquitted by the then Democrat-led Congress. The impeachment proceedings only make their way to the Senate after the House votes in favor of impeachment. Although only a simple majority is needed in the House, the Senate needs a two-thirds majority in favor in order to impeach a president. Bill Clinton was eventually acquitted by the Senate, and was simply impeached but not removed. If he had been removed, he would not have been sent to jail- the Senate does not have the power to do that.

Many parallels have been drawn between Bill Clinton and past or present presidents. Clinton was the first president to be impeached since 1868, when Andrew Johnson was also impeached and acquitted by a one vote margin. Many historians believe that Clinton’s impeachment was much more petty and unsatisfying than Andrew Johnson’s. While Johnson’s actions could be argued to have violated the Constitution when he breached the Tenure of Office Act and removed an appointed official, the impeachment proceedings against Bill Clinton showed no violations and raised the question of whether or not he had committed an impeachable crime. To historians and Democrats alike, Clinton’s actions were abhorrent, but the attacks were unjustifiable and was an example of partisanship. Additionally, Clinton’s popularity was high at the time, and it was reported that a huge majority of Americans had wanted the Senate to resolve the impeachment case without a trial and removal from office. Many even disapproved of the House’s decision to impeach Clinton. Clearly, the debate goes on today about whether or not Clinton deserved to be impeached. Parallels can also be drawn between Clinton and Nixon, both of whom underwent impeachment proceedings. However, Nixon had resigned from office before investigation had concluded, and was never actually impeached.

Today, President Trump is at the forefront of these sexual harassment scandals and faces calls of impeachment periodically. The numerous accusations against him have emboldened many other women to come forth with their stories too- not against Trump, but Clinton. Many are starting to believe the victims, like Juanita Broaddrick more, and regret their decision to not push Clinton to resign in 1998. To his credit, Clinton has stayed silent and away from the flames on the topic. While society has definitely moved forward since the1990s and has become more accepting of women and their experiences, it is still unclear if President Trump will face the same proceedings Clinton did. Clinton’s trial and failure set a critical precedent and shows that impeachment is never an easy process and often fraught with disagreement on all sides.

Sources

• http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/history/johnson/clintontimeline.htm
• http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/impeachment-process-works/story?id=51202880
• https://www.politico.com/story/2017/10/08/house-votes-to-impeach-clinton-oct-8-1998-243550
• http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1459&context=jcl
• https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/15/us/politics/bill-clinton-sexual-misconduct-debate.html

• https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/21/us/impeachment-polls-public-support-for-president-for-closure-emerges-unshaken.html

Down With Orange Juice

Breakfast without orange juice is like a day without sunshine.

So goes the famous line dropped by Anita Bryant in her promotion of Florida’s orange juice. Dubbed the Sunshine State’s official OJ sweetheart, she would go on to be remembered as a prominent anti-LGBTQ activist. In 1977, when Miami-Dade County in South Florida passed a homosexual nondiscrimination act, Bryant and other conservatives became alarmed. In order to combat the ordinance, Bryant immediately began working to gather signatures that supported calling for a special referendum. In order to urge voters to support her, Bryant launched her organization Save Our Children. To her, children were the true victims of homosexuality. After all, as she often so stated, “Gays can’t reproduce, so they have to recruit”.

The LGBTQ community were appalled by Bryant’s campaigning. Some tried to raise money against her. Others went directly for her money: the orange juice. After Bryant succeeded in calling for her special referendum, gay bars across the country began boycotting orange juice from Florida. Activists, such as Harvey Milk, were inspired by Cesar Chavez’s own grape boycott for his labor union and vocally urged people to drop the drink and take up pineapple juice instead. It was the first ever “gaycott”, and was strongest in San Francisco. San Francisco’s own taverns began printing up notices that they would no longer serve orange juice, and even encouraged others to join them in their daily pouring of orange juice out in the street at 11 AM. In a play on Bryant’s own famous line, many wore tees that espoused messages such as “A Day Without Human Rights is Like a Day Without Sunshine”.

And what did Bryant do in response? She faithfully continued in her religious and child-saving ways. Bryant spent the months of the boycott singing with kindergarteners in the background and portrayed herself as a martyr in interviews. On one television show, a gay activist had thrown a pie in her face. Wryly, Bryant remarked, “Well, at least it’s a fruit pie”, using the common idea that “fruity” was a slur for homosexual people. Then she immediately began praying for the activist and for him to reform his lifestyle. Although Bryant faced enormous backlash among the LGBTQ community, she was not without supporters. Jerry Falwell, in agreement with Brant, stated about the community “We’re dealing with a vile and a vicious and a vulgar gang”.

In the end, Milk’s boycott was unsuccessful. The “gaycott” was simply too small to have any real effect nationally, and the ordinance was repealed. Bryant was triumphant, and declared that she would not give up and would go on to defeat all ordinances in all states.  In Miami-Dade County, her activism would have effects that would last for years- it wouldn’t be until 20 years later than there would be a new LGBTQ rights ordinance.

In 1980, Bryant would be fired by the Florida Citrus Commission, and her organization, Save Our Children, seemed to be fired along with her. Bryant’s national fame was permanently destroyed, and gay activists rejoiced and looked towards a brighter future. And while the LGBTQ community continues to break ground on equality everyday, Bryant has still left a damaging legacy. In Florida, gay parents are still banned from applying for adoption despite the thousands of children without a home. In what seems like an attempt to continue her message of saving the children, this ban can be accurately summed up by Joanne Mariner’s statement, “Anita Bryant would be proud”.

Sources

• http://www.myrecipes.com/extracrispy/the-orange-juice-boycott-that-changed-america
• https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/florida-gay-rights-activists-boycott-orange-juice-1977-1980
• http://www.pbs.org/outofthepast/past/p5/1977.html
• http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0804/26/cnr.04.html

https://www.alternet.org/story/17737/anita_bryant%27s_anti-gay_legacy

Ella Baker: A Tireless Spirit

We all grow up on the stories told to us- whether they’re fairy tales or horror novellas, they all affect us. This is particularly encapsulated in the life of Ella Baker. Born on December 13, 1903, in Norfolk, Virginia, Baker grew up on the stories her grandmother told her of the slave revolts. Ella’s grandmother often discussed how as a young slave, she had been whipped by her slave owner for refusing to marry a man that had been chosen for her. As a result, Baker developed a strong sense of social justice that only grew stronger when she went on to attend Shaw University, where she joined school clubs and challenged unfair policies. Even after graduation, Baker joined many activist organizations, including the Young Negroes Cooperative League and NAACP. As a member o the NAACP staff, Baker worked to desegregate New York City public schools.

Later on, Baker increased her involvement in Civil Rights activism when she moved to join the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Baker utilized her skills and connections to plan events for the SCLC and identified and carried out the best plans for protests and campaigns. However, Baker was never really able to leave her grassroots organization behind and disagreed with the policies of strong, male leadership in the SCLC. She was often heard saying, “strong people don’t need strong leaders”. Her relationship with Dr. King was particularly tense- as a leader, he found difficulty allowing Baker to execute her ideas over his own and overcoming his “preacher ego”. Baker was very critical of him and described Dr. King as “a pampered member of Atlanta’s black elite who had the mantle of leadership handed to him”. In the times before Women’s Liberation, Baker became increasingly frustrated and considered resignation. Right before she did, the Greensboro sit-ins were launched.

Baker was inspired by the power and meaningful change brought on by these university students. She left SCLC and began to organize the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), which, contrasting the SCLC, was led by the youth and practiced grassroots activism. SNCC would later go on to help organize the Freedom Rides and black voter registration. Baker believed in the energy of the youth; she recognized that “the young people were the hope of any movement”. As leader of SNCC, Baker took on a more quiet role quite unlike the figurehead position of Dr. King. She was an encouraging voice who listened and gave suggestions to the young activists. Baker believed in the empowerment of everybody, not just herself.

Ella Baker was never interested in the spotlight of activism and sought only to help everyone reach their own potential. Thus, when we think of the Civil Rights Movement today, we automatically turn to Dr. King and his “I Have a Dream Speech”. It is important to remember those who worked behind the scenes to better the movement. Ella Baker, who was a whirlwind that worked tirelessly to pursue change, remained heavily involved in the Civil Rights Movement until her death. Without her, a new era of activism inspired by the younger generation would not have taken off as it did.

Sources

• https://www.huffingtonpost.com/pascal-robert/ella-baker-and-the-limits_b_2718608.html
• https://snccdigital.org/people/ella-baker/
• http://time.com/4633460/mlk-day-ella-baker/
• https://www.ibiblio.org/sncc/baker.html
• http://kingencyclopedia.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/enc_baker_ella_josephine_1903_1986/

National Defense Education Act (1958)

Sputnik.

Every time Americans heard the word, they were reminded of their failure. Many Americans had taken pride in their technological advancements and thought that they were well ahead of the rest of the world in industrialization and development. It caught many off guard when the Soviet Union launched the first satellite into space- if the Russians were able to do this, what else was America lagging behind in? How could this happen?

And so the focus shifted from missiles to stars, and the Space Race began. One of the first acts passed during this time period includes the National Defense Education Act (NDEA). Originally, the NDEA was just a simple piece of legislation proposed by Alabama Democrat Lister Hill that called for federal funding of education. The bill seemed to have no hope of passing as it had previously failed to gain the votes it needed in the House. However, now that Americans were losing their sense of technological superiority, chief clerk of the Senate’s Education and Labor Committee, Stewart McClure, proposed that if they renamed “education” with “defense” it would be able to pass. Although Congress resisted the idea of funding education with federal dollars, many Americans demanded action from them after Sputnik. By framing it with the word “defense”, they hoped to play on the constant fear of war and hysteria that many Americans felt pressured by. When proposing the bill, the House described, “It is no exaggeration to say that America’s progress in many fields of endeavor in the years ahead—in fact, the very survival of our free country—may depend in large part upon the education we provide for our young people now.”

In 1958, the National Defense Education Act was passed. It authorized the usage of over one billion dollars to achieve its goals and went on to become one of the most successful government initiatives in education ever. Through the NDEA, the government was able to establish a precedent for federal funding of higher education, providing low cost loans, and boosting the quality of colleges and universities. Primarily, it aimed to develop STEM education and inspire scientists that could change score in the Space Race. On the side, the act helped to expand college libraries and infrastructures. The effects of this are obvious- in 1960, only 3.6 million students were in college, but by 1970, the number doubled and 7.5 million were enrolled. Thanks to the fear that Sputnik caused, more Americans were more educated than ever before.

Overall, the NDEA impacted much of the youth population during the 50’s and 60’s and increase interest in vigorous science and math courses. Because of this, America remains a top technological competitor in the global marketplace today.

Sources

• https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Sputnik_Spurs_Passage_of_National_Defense_Education_Act.htm
• http://history.house.gov/HouseRecord/Detail/15032436195
• https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ835843.pdf

C is for Code Talkers

C is for Code Talkers

Efficiency and communication are two words that can make or break a battle. During WWII, America struggled to find ways to contact soldiers on the battlefield without revealing their actions to their enemies. Philip Johnston’s suggestion was able to solve this problem and bring Native Americans into patriotism.

Johnston had grown up on a Navajo reservation and could speak the Navajo language fluently. Shortly after entering the army, he approached the Marine Corps with an idea: developing a code based on the Navajo language that could be easily transmitted and decrypted while also remaining a mystery to the Japanese and those who did not know the code. Previously, Cherokee and Choctaw soldiers had used their native languages to send messages during WWI and had been successful. Thus, the army accepted his suggestion and began to recruit Navajo natives to help develop the code.

To come up with the code, the Navajo Code Talkers came up with a Navajo word for each letter of the English alphabet. For example, the code for the letter C would be the world Mausi, which meant cat. Additionally, the code talkers came up with special words for military terms. The Choctaw word “tushka chipota” literally meant warrior soldier, but had a code meaning of just soldier, while the Navajo word “atsa” meant eagle literally but transport planes militarily. Charles Chibitty, a Comanche Code Talker, reflects that “Well, when they first got us in there for Code Talkers, we had to work that out among our own selves so, we didn’t have a word for tank. And the one said it’s like a [Comanche words] he said, it’s just like a turtle, you know. It has a hard shell and it moves and so we called it a wakaree´e, a turtle”, showing that to come up with the code, many natives had to be creative and use inspiration from their daily life.

During the war, Navajo and Hopi code talkers mostly served in the Pacific against Japan, while many Comanches fought in Europe. When used in action, the code turned out to be virtually meaningless to enemies. Even when the Japanese captured and tortured Navajo soldiers, they found that even they couldn’t decrypt it because they had not been trained in the code. The Navajo code talkers would go on to play important roles in every sea offensive in the Pacific, most notably in Guadalcanal (1942) and Iwo Jima (1945).

Sources

• http://www.nmai.si.edu/education/codetalkers/html/chapter4.html
• http://mashable.com/2017/11/28/navajo-code-talkers/#TWnH2O_T4PqN